1. Bike, use public transit, carpool to work, drive slower, keep your tires inflated
One-third of all traffic is commuters. Use alternative transportation when possible. If you must drive, go slower with proper tire inflation. It saves both fuel and tires, and lowers emissions. It also saves lives.
2. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Compost
Reusing packaging material saves more energy than recycling. By avoiding extra packaging, you save both energy and landfill space. Yard and kitchen waste (leaves/grass/vegetable scraps) are 30% of trash. Reduce this amount by composting. Also be sure to re-use plastic bags, or better yet... refuse plastic bags when you really don't need them.
3. Conserve water
Don't let faucets run. Never water your lawn at midday. Place a brick in old toilets. Take low flow short showers. Run the dishwasher only when it is full. Let grass grow longer. Plant native or drought-tolerant garden plants.
4. Quit smoking
Second-hand smoke is a major indoor air pollutant and health hazard. When you quit, both you and your family will lead longer and healthier lives.
5. Don't use pesticides/herbicides on your lawn
Along with nitrogen fertilizer runoff, these are major water pollutants.
6.Keep your cat indoors
Domestic cats kill over one billion small birds and animals every year (1 outdoor cat averages 40 kills per year). They upset natural predator/prey balances and eliminate ground nesting birds.
7.Eat less meat/eat more local and organic foods
Feedlots are a major source of organic pollution. Tropical forests are cut to raise beef.
8.Lower your thermostat in the winter. Raise it in the summer
Wearing a sweater in the winter and short sleeves in the summer saves energy and reduces pollution.
9. Dispose of old paint, chemicals, and oil properly
Don't put batteries, antifreeze, paint, motor oil, or chemicals in the trash. Use proper toxics disposal sites. Never buy more than you need.
10. Consider the environmental costs of major decisions and purchases
When relocating or changing jobs try to live close to work. Compare efficiency when purchasing new cars or appliances. Buy fewer things. Choose products with lower energy inputs.
11. Volunteer/Lobby for the Environment
Work locally and globally to save natural places, reduce urban sprawl, lower pollution and prevent the destruction of wilderness areas for timber and oil.
12. Plant a tree with a child
Take a walk in the woods, or plant trees which store CO2. Teaching our children to love and care for the planet is the most important thing we can do to insure the future of humankind.
13. Wash dishes by hand in a basin, and then use the dish water for outdoor gardens.
Thursday, May 12, 2011
Wednesday, May 11, 2011
Brundtland Commission 1983
Brundtland Commission or the World commission on Environment and development set up by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1983, brought in common use the phrases “Sustainable Development”. It defined sustainable development thus sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.
The brundtland report identifies two key concepts in sustainable development they are:
a) The concept of “needs” in particular the essentials needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given.
b) The idea of limitation imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.
The brundtland commission adopted the following general principles, rights and responsibilities for environmental protection and sustainable development.
• Everyone has the fundamental right to an environment adequate for his or her well being.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to conserve and use the environment and natural resources for the beneficial of the present and future generations.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to maintain ecosystem and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere. They shall also preserve biological diversity and observe the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of living natural resources and ecosystems.
• It is the responsibility of the state to establish adequate environmental protection standards and monitor changes in and publish relevant data on environmental quality and resource use.
• It is the responsibility of the states to inform in a timely manner all people likely to be significantly affected by a planned activity and to grant them equall access due process in administrative and judicial proceeding.
• It is the responsibility of the states to ensure that conservations is treated as integral part of the planning and implementation of the developmental activities and provide assistance to other states, especially to developing countries.
FIRST EARTH SUMMIT, 1992
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as Earth Summit, was held in 1992 in Rio De Janeiro city of Brazil for the protection of the earth and its environment, maintenance of ecological balance and to enrich biodiversity. The conference was attended by the representative of 178 developed and developing countries. The primary objective of the conference were to arrive at commonly acceptable, agreements and their implementation to tackle the problems of global warming, depletion of ozone layer and ozone hole, deforestation, biodiversity, weather and climate change, acid rain, sustainable development etc. The following were the important agenda of the conference.
• An attempt was made at the time of earth summit for an agreement to reduce the emission of green house gases at 1990 level by 2000 AD by the developed countries to tackle the problem of global rise in temperature and its consequential adverse effects in future but no concrete agreement could be arrived at. It was commonly agreed upon to cut the emission of green house gases but neither any concrete formula nor any time limit could be decided for this purpose.
• Forest Conservation: At the time of earth summit all the participants expressed deep concern and anger at the rapacious and reckless cutting of forests. It may be pointed out that according to an estimate about 8,000 years ago 8,000 million hectares of land were covered with forests which decreased to 3,000 million hectares by 1998. Thus the modern society has already consumed two third of world forest cover. It may be remembered that one third tropical rainforests were cleared by 1972 and the loss of remaining rain forest began at the annual rate of 0.5% (i.e 100,000 km2 forest areas per year). The annual rate of loss of rain forest reached the figure of 170,000 km2 by the year 1992. According to United Nations data (1989) forest area is being lost at the annual rate of 2,000,000 hectares in Asia and Pacific regions. Even in Brazil 620,000 km2 of forest area was cleared in the decade 1980-1990.
• Biodiversity: Biodiversity involves different species of plants and animals. It includes diversity within and between species and ecosystems. The richness or poorness of biodiversity of a region depends on the number of their species i.e. larger the number of species, richer the biodiversity and vice-versa. Ecological balance of a region is directly related to greater or richer biodiversity. According to the scientists the known species of the earth are 40,000,000 out of which 10,000 species are becoming extinct every year due to human economic activities9e.g. Extension in agricultural land, increase in agricultural productivity, construction of dams and reservoirs, accelerated soil erosion, industrial development, urbanization etc.). Similarly species of marine organisms are being destroyed due to pollution of sea water (mainly oil sink). Thus, in order to check the loss of biodiversity consequent upon human greedy economic activities a proposal for bio-conservation was presented at the Rio Summit where it was provided that if the developed countries use the biological wealth of the developing countries, then they would have to transfer bio-technologies free of cost to the concerned developing countries.
• Agenda 21: agenda 21 is a comprehensive document which included 1,145 action plans. These agenda include rights and duties related to the environment of the nations for the 21st century and thereafter. The major agenda cover the following items:
i. Aid Funds: Industrialized rich countries agreed to contribute 0.7% of their national income to aid fund. A target of expenditure of 600 billion $ out of the fund per was fixed to implement Agenda 21 between 1993 and 2000 AD. Out of this annual expenditure 475 billion $ were earmarked for developing countries.
ii. Poverty Eradication: It was agreed under Agenda 21 that all possible efforts would be made to increase per capita in the developing countries. It may be mentioned that at the time of Rio summit the number of people having one US $ per capita income per day in the world was 1.2 billion which according to the Human development report of UNO 1997, increased to 1.3 billion. It is evident that this action plan also confined to the proper work and remained in the file.
iii. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development: This Agenda included the following programmed – review of the agricultural policy to ensure people participation, to diversify employment in agriculture, to provide information about land resource management, land conservation and rehabilitation. A target of 31.8 billion US $ per year was fixed for the implementation of this Agenda but this also proved futile due to lack of requisite fund.
iv. Forest Conservation: Though there was unanimous agreement for the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests but no definite law could be enacted for the purpose. In spite of Rio Summit reckless felling of trees continued. 15% more forests were cleared in 1996 in comparison to 1992 lever.
v. Biodiversity: Only 150 countries out of 178 participating countries in the Earth Summit in 1992, could sign the agreement to enrich the biodiversity. The agreement on biodiversity included three programmes i.e
a) To ensure conservation of biodiversity.
b) Sustainable use of biodiversity,
c) Rational and equitable shear of profit to accure from the use of genetic resources.
According to this agreement the country should have complete control over its biotic resources and full right over the profit accruing from them. If the biotic resources of a country are commercially used by another country, the country possessing the biotic resource can sign an agreement with the user country for sharing the profit occurring there from.
The brundtland report identifies two key concepts in sustainable development they are:
a) The concept of “needs” in particular the essentials needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given.
b) The idea of limitation imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.
The brundtland commission adopted the following general principles, rights and responsibilities for environmental protection and sustainable development.
• Everyone has the fundamental right to an environment adequate for his or her well being.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to conserve and use the environment and natural resources for the beneficial of the present and future generations.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to maintain ecosystem and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere. They shall also preserve biological diversity and observe the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of living natural resources and ecosystems.
• It is the responsibility of the state to establish adequate environmental protection standards and monitor changes in and publish relevant data on environmental quality and resource use.
• It is the responsibility of the states to inform in a timely manner all people likely to be significantly affected by a planned activity and to grant them equall access due process in administrative and judicial proceeding.
• It is the responsibility of the states to ensure that conservations is treated as integral part of the planning and implementation of the developmental activities and provide assistance to other states, especially to developing countries.
FIRST EARTH SUMMIT, 1992
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as Earth Summit, was held in 1992 in Rio De Janeiro city of Brazil for the protection of the earth and its environment, maintenance of ecological balance and to enrich biodiversity. The conference was attended by the representative of 178 developed and developing countries. The primary objective of the conference were to arrive at commonly acceptable, agreements and their implementation to tackle the problems of global warming, depletion of ozone layer and ozone hole, deforestation, biodiversity, weather and climate change, acid rain, sustainable development etc. The following were the important agenda of the conference.
• An attempt was made at the time of earth summit for an agreement to reduce the emission of green house gases at 1990 level by 2000 AD by the developed countries to tackle the problem of global rise in temperature and its consequential adverse effects in future but no concrete agreement could be arrived at. It was commonly agreed upon to cut the emission of green house gases but neither any concrete formula nor any time limit could be decided for this purpose.
• Forest Conservation: At the time of earth summit all the participants expressed deep concern and anger at the rapacious and reckless cutting of forests. It may be pointed out that according to an estimate about 8,000 years ago 8,000 million hectares of land were covered with forests which decreased to 3,000 million hectares by 1998. Thus the modern society has already consumed two third of world forest cover. It may be remembered that one third tropical rainforests were cleared by 1972 and the loss of remaining rain forest began at the annual rate of 0.5% (i.e 100,000 km2 forest areas per year). The annual rate of loss of rain forest reached the figure of 170,000 km2 by the year 1992. According to United Nations data (1989) forest area is being lost at the annual rate of 2,000,000 hectares in Asia and Pacific regions. Even in Brazil 620,000 km2 of forest area was cleared in the decade 1980-1990.
• Biodiversity: Biodiversity involves different species of plants and animals. It includes diversity within and between species and ecosystems. The richness or poorness of biodiversity of a region depends on the number of their species i.e. larger the number of species, richer the biodiversity and vice-versa. Ecological balance of a region is directly related to greater or richer biodiversity. According to the scientists the known species of the earth are 40,000,000 out of which 10,000 species are becoming extinct every year due to human economic activities9e.g. Extension in agricultural land, increase in agricultural productivity, construction of dams and reservoirs, accelerated soil erosion, industrial development, urbanization etc.). Similarly species of marine organisms are being destroyed due to pollution of sea water (mainly oil sink). Thus, in order to check the loss of biodiversity consequent upon human greedy economic activities a proposal for bio-conservation was presented at the Rio Summit where it was provided that if the developed countries use the biological wealth of the developing countries, then they would have to transfer bio-technologies free of cost to the concerned developing countries.
• Agenda 21: agenda 21 is a comprehensive document which included 1,145 action plans. These agenda include rights and duties related to the environment of the nations for the 21st century and thereafter. The major agenda cover the following items:
i. Aid Funds: Industrialized rich countries agreed to contribute 0.7% of their national income to aid fund. A target of expenditure of 600 billion $ out of the fund per was fixed to implement Agenda 21 between 1993 and 2000 AD. Out of this annual expenditure 475 billion $ were earmarked for developing countries.
ii. Poverty Eradication: It was agreed under Agenda 21 that all possible efforts would be made to increase per capita in the developing countries. It may be mentioned that at the time of Rio summit the number of people having one US $ per capita income per day in the world was 1.2 billion which according to the Human development report of UNO 1997, increased to 1.3 billion. It is evident that this action plan also confined to the proper work and remained in the file.
iii. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development: This Agenda included the following programmed – review of the agricultural policy to ensure people participation, to diversify employment in agriculture, to provide information about land resource management, land conservation and rehabilitation. A target of 31.8 billion US $ per year was fixed for the implementation of this Agenda but this also proved futile due to lack of requisite fund.
iv. Forest Conservation: Though there was unanimous agreement for the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests but no definite law could be enacted for the purpose. In spite of Rio Summit reckless felling of trees continued. 15% more forests were cleared in 1996 in comparison to 1992 lever.
v. Biodiversity: Only 150 countries out of 178 participating countries in the Earth Summit in 1992, could sign the agreement to enrich the biodiversity. The agreement on biodiversity included three programmes i.e
a) To ensure conservation of biodiversity.
b) Sustainable use of biodiversity,
c) Rational and equitable shear of profit to accure from the use of genetic resources.
According to this agreement the country should have complete control over its biotic resources and full right over the profit accruing from them. If the biotic resources of a country are commercially used by another country, the country possessing the biotic resource can sign an agreement with the user country for sharing the profit occurring there from.
Careers in the Environment
Environmental Careers
At present in the U.S. and other developing countries economists claim that the green market is one of the fastest growing segments of the economy.
Many employers are actively seeking environmentally educated graduates. They are especially interested in the people with scientific and engineering backgrounds and double major or double minors.
Environmental careers opportunities exists in a large number of fields: environmental engineering (currently the fastest growing job market), sustainable forestry and range management, parks and recreation, air and water quality control, solid waste and hazardous waste management, recycling, urban and rural land-use planning, computer modeling, ecological restoration and soil, water, fishery and wildlife conservation and management.
Environmental careers can also be found in education, environmental planning, environmental management, environmental health, toxicology, geology, ecology, conservation biology, climatology, environmental chemistry, population dynamics and regulation i.e. demography, law, risk analysis, risk management, accountings, environmental journalism, design and architecture, energy conservation and analysis, renewable energy technology, hydrology, consulting public relations, activism and lobbying, economics, diplomacy, developing and marketing, publishing( environmental magazines and books) and teaching and law enforcement(pollution detection and enforcements teams).
Saturday, April 30, 2011
Radiation and Environment
Radiation Ecology- Radiation ecology is the phenomenon of study of effects of radiation on organisms.
Radioactivity- Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous emission of , and - rays by the naturally occurring elements like Uranium, Polonium, Radium, etc.
These elements constantly undergo spontaneous change with the emission of, and - rays. The term radioactivity was coined by Madam Curie in the year 1896 A.D.
Specific Background:
• And - rays were discovered by Henri Becquerel.
• -rays were discovered by P.Villiard in 1900.
• X-rays were discovered by W. Roentgen in 1895.
• Thorium was discovered by Schmitt in 1898.
• Henry Becquerel in 1895 took up the study of phosphorescent element Uranium i.e. Potassium-Uranium Sulphate.
International Organization working in the field of Radiation:
▪ International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
Chernobyl Disaster
On April 26, 1986 a series of explosion in one of the reactors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine (Northern part of the Soviet Union) blew the massive roof off the reactor building and flew radioactive debris and dust high into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread over much of the Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and other parts of Europe and vertically encircled the planet.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.
Radioactivity- Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous emission of , and - rays by the naturally occurring elements like Uranium, Polonium, Radium, etc.
These elements constantly undergo spontaneous change with the emission of, and - rays. The term radioactivity was coined by Madam Curie in the year 1896 A.D.
Specific Background:
• And - rays were discovered by Henri Becquerel.
• -rays were discovered by P.Villiard in 1900.
• X-rays were discovered by W. Roentgen in 1895.
• Thorium was discovered by Schmitt in 1898.
• Henry Becquerel in 1895 took up the study of phosphorescent element Uranium i.e. Potassium-Uranium Sulphate.
International Organization working in the field of Radiation:
▪ International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
Chernobyl Disaster
On April 26, 1986 a series of explosion in one of the reactors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine (Northern part of the Soviet Union) blew the massive roof off the reactor building and flew radioactive debris and dust high into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread over much of the Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and other parts of Europe and vertically encircled the planet.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.
Wednesday, April 13, 2011
A Black Day in Bhopal
December 2, 1984 will be a black day for India, because on that date the world’s worst industrial accident occurred at a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India.
Some about 36 metric tons of (40 tons) of highly toxic methyl iso cyan ate (MIC) gas, used to produce carbonate pesticides, erupted from an underground storage tank after water leaked in through faulty valves and corroded pipes and caused an explosive chemical reaction. Once in the atmosphere, some of the toxic MIC was converted to even more deadly hydrogen cyanide gas.
The toxic cloud of gas settled over about 78 Sq. Km. exposing up to 600,000 people. Many of these people were illegal squatters (livings near the plant) because they had no other place to go. Since the safety Sirens at the plant had been turned off, the deadly cloud spread through Bhopal without warning.
Eyes, mouths and lungs burned, some victims tried to flee through the narrow streets but many were trampled. Others drowned in their own bodily fluids from exposure to toxic gas. Many of the old, infant and very young died in their sleep.
According to the Indian officials at least 6,000 people (some say that around 7,000-16,000based on the scales of strounds and cremation wood) were killed. An international team of Medical specialists estimated that in 1996 50,000-60,000 people sustained permanent injuries such as blindness, lungs damage and neurological problems.
The economic damage from the accident was estimated at $4.1 billion. Indian officials claim that Union Carbide probably could prevent the tragedy by spending no more than $1 million to upgrade the plant equipment and improve the safety. According to Indian officials the already substandard plant was in the middle of a cost cutting campaign. Management was reducing training time for machine operators and skimping on safety measures.
On the night of the disaster, six safety measures designed to prevent a leakage of toxic materials were inadequate, shut down or malfunctioning. However, Union Carbide officials contend that the accident was the result of sabotage by a disgruntled Indian employee.
After the accident, Union Carbide reduced the corporation’s liability risks for compensating victims by selling off a portion of its assets and giving much of the profits to its shareholders in the form of special dividends. In 1994, Union Carbide’s sold its holdings in India. In 1989 Union Carbide agreed to pay an out of court settlement of $470 million to compensate the victims without admitting any guilt or negligence concerning the accident. The company also spent $100 million to build a hospital for the victims. By 2000, most victims with injuries had received $600 in compensation and families of victims who died had received about $3,000.
On Dec 21 1999- the 15th anniversary of the disaster survivors and families of people killed by the accident filed a law suit in a New York U.S. district court charging the Union Carbide company and its former chief officer with violating international law and the fundamental human rights of the victims and survivors of the Bhopal plant accident.
The lawsuit alleges-(I) that Union Carbide “demonstrated a reckless and depraved indifference to human life in the design, operation and maintenance of the Union Carbide facility in Bhopal” (II) that the defendants are liable for fraud and civil contempt for lawful total failure to comply with the lawful orders of the courts of both the United States and India.
Some about 36 metric tons of (40 tons) of highly toxic methyl iso cyan ate (MIC) gas, used to produce carbonate pesticides, erupted from an underground storage tank after water leaked in through faulty valves and corroded pipes and caused an explosive chemical reaction. Once in the atmosphere, some of the toxic MIC was converted to even more deadly hydrogen cyanide gas.
The toxic cloud of gas settled over about 78 Sq. Km. exposing up to 600,000 people. Many of these people were illegal squatters (livings near the plant) because they had no other place to go. Since the safety Sirens at the plant had been turned off, the deadly cloud spread through Bhopal without warning.
Eyes, mouths and lungs burned, some victims tried to flee through the narrow streets but many were trampled. Others drowned in their own bodily fluids from exposure to toxic gas. Many of the old, infant and very young died in their sleep.
According to the Indian officials at least 6,000 people (some say that around 7,000-16,000based on the scales of strounds and cremation wood) were killed. An international team of Medical specialists estimated that in 1996 50,000-60,000 people sustained permanent injuries such as blindness, lungs damage and neurological problems.
The economic damage from the accident was estimated at $4.1 billion. Indian officials claim that Union Carbide probably could prevent the tragedy by spending no more than $1 million to upgrade the plant equipment and improve the safety. According to Indian officials the already substandard plant was in the middle of a cost cutting campaign. Management was reducing training time for machine operators and skimping on safety measures.
On the night of the disaster, six safety measures designed to prevent a leakage of toxic materials were inadequate, shut down or malfunctioning. However, Union Carbide officials contend that the accident was the result of sabotage by a disgruntled Indian employee.
After the accident, Union Carbide reduced the corporation’s liability risks for compensating victims by selling off a portion of its assets and giving much of the profits to its shareholders in the form of special dividends. In 1994, Union Carbide’s sold its holdings in India. In 1989 Union Carbide agreed to pay an out of court settlement of $470 million to compensate the victims without admitting any guilt or negligence concerning the accident. The company also spent $100 million to build a hospital for the victims. By 2000, most victims with injuries had received $600 in compensation and families of victims who died had received about $3,000.
On Dec 21 1999- the 15th anniversary of the disaster survivors and families of people killed by the accident filed a law suit in a New York U.S. district court charging the Union Carbide company and its former chief officer with violating international law and the fundamental human rights of the victims and survivors of the Bhopal plant accident.
The lawsuit alleges-(I) that Union Carbide “demonstrated a reckless and depraved indifference to human life in the design, operation and maintenance of the Union Carbide facility in Bhopal” (II) that the defendants are liable for fraud and civil contempt for lawful total failure to comply with the lawful orders of the courts of both the United States and India.
Chernobyl Disaster
On April 26, 1986 a series of explosion in one of the reactors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine (Northern part of the Soviet Union) blew the massive roof off the reactor building and flew radioactive debris and dust high into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread over much of the Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and other parts of Europe and vertically encircled the planet.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.
Thursday, February 17, 2011
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
The choice of the antimicrobial used for the treatment of an infection is influenced by several factor: the age of the patient, the site of infection, immune status of the patient, efficacy of the drug, the profile of adverse effects, the prevalence of anti-microbial resistance and the concomitant presence of other systemic diseases or organ dysfunction.
The cephalosporins include three generations of agents. The second generation extends the antimicrobial spectrum of the first generation to include wide range of gram negative rods and Pseudomonas.
The -lactams act by inhibiting the incorporation of peptidoglycon into the bacterial cell wall. Penicilin G still remains the drug of choice for syphilis, meningococci, clostridia and pneumococcous. Ampicillin has an extended spectrum of activity aganst gram negative rods(Salmonella, Hemophilus influenzae). Penicillinase-resistant penicilins are the drugs of choice for infections due to -lactamase producing staphylococci. Piperacillin and ticarcillin are antipseudomonal penicillins.
The cephalosporins include three generations of agents. The second generation extends the antimicrobial spectrum of the first generation to include wide range of gram negative rods and Pseudomonas.
The -lactams act by inhibiting the incorporation of peptidoglycon into the bacterial cell wall. Penicilin G still remains the drug of choice for syphilis, meningococci, clostridia and pneumococcous. Ampicillin has an extended spectrum of activity aganst gram negative rods(Salmonella, Hemophilus influenzae). Penicillinase-resistant penicilins are the drugs of choice for infections due to -lactamase producing staphylococci. Piperacillin and ticarcillin are antipseudomonal penicillins.
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