CLIMATE AND RAINFALL IN NEPAL

Nepal has very pleasant climate. Nepal has four distinct seasons. Spring, from March to May is warm and dusty with rain showers. Summer, from June to August, is the monsoon season when the hills turn lush and green. Autumn, from September to November, is cool with clear skies, and is the most popular trekking season. In winter from December to February, it is cold at night and can be foggy in the early morning but afternoons are usually clear and pleasant, though there is occasional snow in the mountains.

Weather climate condition in Nepal vary from region to region. Summer and late spring temperatures range from more than 40 Degrees Celsius in the Tera i to about 28 Degrees Celsius in the hilly region of the country. In winter, average maximum and minimum temperatures in the Terai range from a mild 23 Degrees Celsius to a brisk 7 Degrees Celsius while the central valleys experience a chilly 12 Degrees Celsius maximum temperature and a minimum temperature often falling below freezing point.

Much colder temperatures prevail at higher elevations. The Kathmandu Valley situated at an altitude of 1310m, has a seasonable but equable climate with average summer and winter temperatures of 27 Degrees Celsius to 19 Degrees Celsius and 20 Degrees Celsius to 2 Degrees Celsius respectively. The annual rainfall in Kathmandu generally exceeds 1300mm. The mean annual precipitation ranges from more than 6000mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna range in central Nepal to less than the 250mm in the north central portion near the Tibetan plateau. Amounts varying between 1500 and 2500mm predominate over most of the country. On an average, about 80% of the precipitation is confined to the monsoon period (June-September).

Nepal's Biodiversity at a Glance

The tallest mountain range in the world, the Himalaya is also a youngest and is still growing. This range deprives the great Tibetan plateau from monsoon and forms the rain shadow. And on the other hand it also blocks the cold northern winds reaching the Indian plains during winter. Because of these phenomena the southern parts of the Himalaya is lush green, productive and prone to erosion due to full brunt of monsoon, whereas the northern Tibetan plateau remained arid region. This uniqueness in the climate found due to altitudinal variation allows Nepal to experience from Tropical to Alpine bio-climate, despite our geographical position. Hence Nepal boasts from the large terrestrial rhinos and elephants of the tropics to the snow leopard and Tibetan Argali of alpine region.

Nepal has been ranked top ten highest flowering plant diversity out of 25 Asian countries. On a world scale Nepal lies 27th in the richness scale on floral diversity. With just over 0.1% of the earths land surface occurring in Nepal, it supports globally known 4.2% butterflies (635 spp), 2.2 % of fresh water fish species (185 spp), 1.1 % amphibians (43 spp.), 1.5% reptile (100 spp.), 8.5% of birds (860 spp.) and 4.2% mammals (181 spp).


Distribution of butterflies, Freshwater fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals Group Name #1 Terai and Siwaliks Midhills Highlands
Spp. % Spp. % Spp. %
Butterflies 635 325 51.2 557 87.7 82 12.9
Freshwater fishes 185 154 83.2 76 41.1 6 3.2
Amphibians 43 22 51.2 29 67.4 9 20.9
Reptiles 100 68 68 56 56 13 13
Freshwater fishes 844 648 *77.8 691 *83 413 *49.7
Mammals 181 91 *51.1 110 *61.5 80 *45.0
Total* 1988 1308 *66.3 1519 *77.0 603 *30.5

Earthquake: Ist Danger Zone

As I watch the horrific aftermath of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami, and the scale of the rescue effort needed, I cant believe the turmoil that has struck Japan. It is so alarming and distressing to see a developed country that is prepared for the danger of an earthquake be so totally overwhelmed. I am also becoming more and more alarmed of the scale of the disaster if an earthquake were to strike Kathmandu. I met a seismologist who was working here last year and he told me some extremely frightening statistics, my girlfriend has actually also been working on an article about it for the last few weeks. The verdict is that when an earthquake strikes here it may well be more lethal than Haiti.

Geo Hazards International rate Kathmandu as the number one danger spot world-wide. There are several reasons for this... all of them very very alarming.

It is one of the most densely populated cities in the world. Mazes of medium-high rise masonry building, virtually none of which are EQ proofed, tiny streets, no green spaces, and no-where to run. The country has been at war up until a few years ago and any regulation that was in place has since been ignored. There was a huge influx of migration into the city during the war and many poorly built buildings went up. The entire valley floor is densely packed with poorly built 3-4 story buildings.
The entire city is built on a sandy former-lake bed which acts like an amplifier for any shaking in the region.
There is only one airport, with one runway. But the route into and out of the airport will likely be blocked. And in fact it is believed to be in the worst area in the city for damage.
There are only 3 roads into and out of Kathmandu. All of them are tiny and cross huge mountains. All 3 are certain to be entirely cut-off due to landslides. Perhaps for many weeks. Considering there are very regularly landslides simply after heavy rainfall i don"t find this very surprising. This means that the city is entirely cut off from the world, when the earthquake does hit there may be no way of getting into or out of the city.
As one of the worlds poorest countries it has very few resources. There are 8 working fire-engines in a city of 2.5 million people. The mobile phone building headquarters are not even proofed. Even right now before the earthquake it has only 10 hrs of electricity per day.
A very large earthquake is overdue. The last one was in 1934. They are expected roughly every 75 years. It would likely be a 8+ scale earthquake. The area to the west of Kathmandu is even more overdue.

It is inspiring to see the outpouring of funds and help going to Japan and Haiti and New Zealand. Japan certainly needs all the help it can get right now, but i cant help thinking that funds may be better spent on prevention in areas where lack of money is the number one issue. The frustrating thing is that most of this destruction can be entirely avoided. Experts had been screaming about the potential disaster waiting to happen before Haiti and there was very little done except after the event. Experts are now screaming about the dangers in Kathmandu, Istanbul, Tehran and elsewhere but we don"t hear about these until after they happen. And when it does happen to Kathmandu no amount of funds can help because of the problem of getting into the city. I cant help thinking that the media is failing us. As soon as it happens they are all over it with TV cameras and helicopters but right now many people in Kathmandu i have spoken to seem to be completely unaware of the dangers. Some are not even aware they are in an earthquake zone.

Climate Change

Climate change is a long-term shift in the statistic of the weather. For example, it could show up as a change in climate normal (Expected average values for temperature and Precipitation) for a given place and time of year, from one decade to the next. We know that the global climate is currently changing. The last decade of the 20th Century and the beginning of the 21st have been the warmest period in the entire global instrumental temperature record, starting in the mid-19th century.
Why is the Climate Changing?
Natural variability
Climate change is a normal part of the Earth’s natural variability, which is related to interactions among the atmosphere, ocean, and land, as well as changes in the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth. The geologic record includes significant evidence for large-scale climate changes in Earth’s past. An example of this variability is shown in the plot below of temperature data for the last 420,000 years, derived from an Antarctic ice core.
An example of this variability is shown in the plot below of temperature data for the last 420,000 years, derived from an Antarctic ice core.
Human-induced change
Greenhouse Gases
Certain naturally occurring gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O), trap heat in the atmosphere causing a greenhouse effect. Burning of fossil fuels, like oil, coal, and natural gas is adding CO2 to the atmosphere. The current level is the highest in the past 650,000 years. The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes, “That most of the observed increase in the globally averaged
Temperature since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations.”
What is being done to Study the Effects of Climate Change?
There are numerous potential effects of climate change. Extensive research is being done around the world – a good deal within NOAA – to determine the extent to which climate change is occurring, how much of it is being caused by anthropogenic (manmade) forces, and its potential impacts. In some of these areas, there is not a consensus among scientists and in fact, there are often conflicting points-of-view and studies. However, with further research, no doubt many questions regarding impacts will be resolved in the future. Potential impacts most studied by researchers include the effects on sea level, drought, local weather, and hurricanes. Most of our current knowledge of global change comes from General Circulation Models (GCMs).
At present, GCMs have the ability to provide us with a mean annual temperature for the planet that is reliable. Regional and local temperature and precipitation information from GCMs is, at present, unreliable. Much of the global change research effort is focused on improving these models.

Eco-Friendly Tips

1. Bike, use public transit, carpool to work, drive slower, keep your tires inflated

One-third of all traffic is commuters. Use alternative transportation when possible. If you must drive, go slower with proper tire inflation. It saves both fuel and tires, and lowers emissions. It also saves lives.

2. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Compost

Reusing packaging material saves more energy than recycling. By avoiding extra packaging, you save both energy and landfill space. Yard and kitchen waste (leaves/grass/vegetable scraps) are 30% of trash. Reduce this amount by composting. Also be sure to re-use plastic bags, or better yet... refuse plastic bags when you really don't need them.

3. Conserve water

Don't let faucets run. Never water your lawn at midday. Place a brick in old toilets. Take low flow short showers. Run the dishwasher only when it is full. Let grass grow longer. Plant native or drought-tolerant garden plants.

4. Quit smoking

Second-hand smoke is a major indoor air pollutant and health hazard. When you quit, both you and your family will lead longer and healthier lives.

5. Don't use pesticides/herbicides on your lawn

Along with nitrogen fertilizer runoff, these are major water pollutants.

6.Keep your cat indoors

Domestic cats kill over one billion small birds and animals every year (1 outdoor cat averages 40 kills per year). They upset natural predator/prey balances and eliminate ground nesting birds.

7.Eat less meat/eat more local and organic foods

Feedlots are a major source of organic pollution. Tropical forests are cut to raise beef.

8.Lower your thermostat in the winter. Raise it in the summer

Wearing a sweater in the winter and short sleeves in the summer saves energy and reduces pollution.

9. Dispose of old paint, chemicals, and oil properly

Don't put batteries, antifreeze, paint, motor oil, or chemicals in the trash. Use proper toxics disposal sites. Never buy more than you need.

10. Consider the environmental costs of major decisions and purchases

When relocating or changing jobs try to live close to work. Compare efficiency when purchasing new cars or appliances. Buy fewer things. Choose products with lower energy inputs.

11. Volunteer/Lobby for the Environment

Work locally and globally to save natural places, reduce urban sprawl, lower pollution and prevent the destruction of wilderness areas for timber and oil.

12. Plant a tree with a child

Take a walk in the woods, or plant trees which store CO2. Teaching our children to love and care for the planet is the most important thing we can do to insure the future of humankind.

13. Wash dishes by hand in a basin, and then use the dish water for outdoor gardens.

Brundtland Commission 1983

Brundtland Commission or the World commission on Environment and development set up by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1983, brought in common use the phrases “Sustainable Development”. It defined sustainable development thus sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.
The brundtland report identifies two key concepts in sustainable development they are:
a) The concept of “needs” in particular the essentials needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given.
b) The idea of limitation imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.

The brundtland commission adopted the following general principles, rights and responsibilities for environmental protection and sustainable development.
• Everyone has the fundamental right to an environment adequate for his or her well being.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to conserve and use the environment and natural resources for the beneficial of the present and future generations.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to maintain ecosystem and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere. They shall also preserve biological diversity and observe the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of living natural resources and ecosystems.
• It is the responsibility of the state to establish adequate environmental protection standards and monitor changes in and publish relevant data on environmental quality and resource use.
• It is the responsibility of the states to inform in a timely manner all people likely to be significantly affected by a planned activity and to grant them equall access due process in administrative and judicial proceeding.
• It is the responsibility of the states to ensure that conservations is treated as integral part of the planning and implementation of the developmental activities and provide assistance to other states, especially to developing countries.



FIRST EARTH SUMMIT, 1992

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as Earth Summit, was held in 1992 in Rio De Janeiro city of Brazil for the protection of the earth and its environment, maintenance of ecological balance and to enrich biodiversity. The conference was attended by the representative of 178 developed and developing countries. The primary objective of the conference were to arrive at commonly acceptable, agreements and their implementation to tackle the problems of global warming, depletion of ozone layer and ozone hole, deforestation, biodiversity, weather and climate change, acid rain, sustainable development etc. The following were the important agenda of the conference.

• An attempt was made at the time of earth summit for an agreement to reduce the emission of green house gases at 1990 level by 2000 AD by the developed countries to tackle the problem of global rise in temperature and its consequential adverse effects in future but no concrete agreement could be arrived at. It was commonly agreed upon to cut the emission of green house gases but neither any concrete formula nor any time limit could be decided for this purpose.
• Forest Conservation: At the time of earth summit all the participants expressed deep concern and anger at the rapacious and reckless cutting of forests. It may be pointed out that according to an estimate about 8,000 years ago 8,000 million hectares of land were covered with forests which decreased to 3,000 million hectares by 1998. Thus the modern society has already consumed two third of world forest cover. It may be remembered that one third tropical rainforests were cleared by 1972 and the loss of remaining rain forest began at the annual rate of 0.5% (i.e 100,000 km2 forest areas per year). The annual rate of loss of rain forest reached the figure of 170,000 km2 by the year 1992. According to United Nations data (1989) forest area is being lost at the annual rate of 2,000,000 hectares in Asia and Pacific regions. Even in Brazil 620,000 km2 of forest area was cleared in the decade 1980-1990.
• Biodiversity: Biodiversity involves different species of plants and animals. It includes diversity within and between species and ecosystems. The richness or poorness of biodiversity of a region depends on the number of their species i.e. larger the number of species, richer the biodiversity and vice-versa. Ecological balance of a region is directly related to greater or richer biodiversity. According to the scientists the known species of the earth are 40,000,000 out of which 10,000 species are becoming extinct every year due to human economic activities9e.g. Extension in agricultural land, increase in agricultural productivity, construction of dams and reservoirs, accelerated soil erosion, industrial development, urbanization etc.). Similarly species of marine organisms are being destroyed due to pollution of sea water (mainly oil sink). Thus, in order to check the loss of biodiversity consequent upon human greedy economic activities a proposal for bio-conservation was presented at the Rio Summit where it was provided that if the developed countries use the biological wealth of the developing countries, then they would have to transfer bio-technologies free of cost to the concerned developing countries.
• Agenda 21: agenda 21 is a comprehensive document which included 1,145 action plans. These agenda include rights and duties related to the environment of the nations for the 21st century and thereafter. The major agenda cover the following items:
i. Aid Funds: Industrialized rich countries agreed to contribute 0.7% of their national income to aid fund. A target of expenditure of 600 billion $ out of the fund per was fixed to implement Agenda 21 between 1993 and 2000 AD. Out of this annual expenditure 475 billion $ were earmarked for developing countries.
ii. Poverty Eradication: It was agreed under Agenda 21 that all possible efforts would be made to increase per capita in the developing countries. It may be mentioned that at the time of Rio summit the number of people having one US $ per capita income per day in the world was 1.2 billion which according to the Human development report of UNO 1997, increased to 1.3 billion. It is evident that this action plan also confined to the proper work and remained in the file.
iii. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development: This Agenda included the following programmed – review of the agricultural policy to ensure people participation, to diversify employment in agriculture, to provide information about land resource management, land conservation and rehabilitation. A target of 31.8 billion US $ per year was fixed for the implementation of this Agenda but this also proved futile due to lack of requisite fund.
iv. Forest Conservation: Though there was unanimous agreement for the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests but no definite law could be enacted for the purpose. In spite of Rio Summit reckless felling of trees continued. 15% more forests were cleared in 1996 in comparison to 1992 lever.
v. Biodiversity: Only 150 countries out of 178 participating countries in the Earth Summit in 1992, could sign the agreement to enrich the biodiversity. The agreement on biodiversity included three programmes i.e
a) To ensure conservation of biodiversity.
b) Sustainable use of biodiversity,
c) Rational and equitable shear of profit to accure from the use of genetic resources.
According to this agreement the country should have complete control over its biotic resources and full right over the profit accruing from them. If the biotic resources of a country are commercially used by another country, the country possessing the biotic resource can sign an agreement with the user country for sharing the profit occurring there from.

Careers in the Environment

Environmental Careers
At present in the U.S. and other developing countries economists claim that the green market is one of the fastest growing segments of the economy.
Many employers are actively seeking environmentally educated graduates. They are especially interested in the people with scientific and engineering backgrounds and double major or double minors.
Environmental careers opportunities exists in a large number of fields: environmental engineering (currently the fastest growing job market), sustainable forestry and range management, parks and recreation, air and water quality control, solid waste and hazardous waste management, recycling, urban and rural land-use planning, computer modeling, ecological restoration and soil, water, fishery and wildlife conservation and management.
Environmental careers can also be found in education, environmental planning, environmental management, environmental health, toxicology, geology, ecology, conservation biology, climatology, environmental chemistry, population dynamics and regulation i.e. demography, law, risk analysis, risk management, accountings, environmental journalism, design and architecture, energy conservation and analysis, renewable energy technology, hydrology, consulting public relations, activism and lobbying, economics, diplomacy, developing and marketing, publishing( environmental magazines and books) and teaching and law enforcement(pollution detection and enforcements teams).

Radiation and Environment

Radiation Ecology- Radiation ecology is the phenomenon of study of effects of radiation on organisms.
Radioactivity- Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous emission of , and - rays by the naturally occurring elements like Uranium, Polonium, Radium, etc.
These elements constantly undergo spontaneous change with the emission of, and - rays. The term radioactivity was coined by Madam Curie in the year 1896 A.D.
Specific Background:
•  And - rays were discovered by Henri Becquerel.
• -rays were discovered by P.Villiard in 1900.
• X-rays were discovered by W. Roentgen in 1895.
• Thorium was discovered by Schmitt in 1898.
• Henry Becquerel in 1895 took up the study of phosphorescent element Uranium i.e. Potassium-Uranium Sulphate.
International Organization working in the field of Radiation:
▪ International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
Chernobyl Disaster
On April 26, 1986 a series of explosion in one of the reactors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine (Northern part of the Soviet Union) blew the massive roof off the reactor building and flew radioactive debris and dust high into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread over much of the Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and other parts of Europe and vertically encircled the planet.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.

A Black Day in Bhopal

December 2, 1984 will be a black day for India, because on that date the world’s worst industrial accident occurred at a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India.
Some about 36 metric tons of (40 tons) of highly toxic methyl iso cyan ate (MIC) gas, used to produce carbonate pesticides, erupted from an underground storage tank after water leaked in through faulty valves and corroded pipes and caused an explosive chemical reaction. Once in the atmosphere, some of the toxic MIC was converted to even more deadly hydrogen cyanide gas.
The toxic cloud of gas settled over about 78 Sq. Km. exposing up to 600,000 people. Many of these people were illegal squatters (livings near the plant) because they had no other place to go. Since the safety Sirens at the plant had been turned off, the deadly cloud spread through Bhopal without warning.
Eyes, mouths and lungs burned, some victims tried to flee through the narrow streets but many were trampled. Others drowned in their own bodily fluids from exposure to toxic gas. Many of the old, infant and very young died in their sleep.
According to the Indian officials at least 6,000 people (some say that around 7,000-16,000based on the scales of strounds and cremation wood) were killed. An international team of Medical specialists estimated that in 1996 50,000-60,000 people sustained permanent injuries such as blindness, lungs damage and neurological problems.
The economic damage from the accident was estimated at $4.1 billion. Indian officials claim that Union Carbide probably could prevent the tragedy by spending no more than $1 million to upgrade the plant equipment and improve the safety. According to Indian officials the already substandard plant was in the middle of a cost cutting campaign. Management was reducing training time for machine operators and skimping on safety measures.
On the night of the disaster, six safety measures designed to prevent a leakage of toxic materials were inadequate, shut down or malfunctioning. However, Union Carbide officials contend that the accident was the result of sabotage by a disgruntled Indian employee.
After the accident, Union Carbide reduced the corporation’s liability risks for compensating victims by selling off a portion of its assets and giving much of the profits to its shareholders in the form of special dividends. In 1994, Union Carbide’s sold its holdings in India. In 1989 Union Carbide agreed to pay an out of court settlement of $470 million to compensate the victims without admitting any guilt or negligence concerning the accident. The company also spent $100 million to build a hospital for the victims. By 2000, most victims with injuries had received $600 in compensation and families of victims who died had received about $3,000.
On Dec 21 1999- the 15th anniversary of the disaster survivors and families of people killed by the accident filed a law suit in a New York U.S. district court charging the Union Carbide company and its former chief officer with violating international law and the fundamental human rights of the victims and survivors of the Bhopal plant accident.
The lawsuit alleges-(I) that Union Carbide “demonstrated a reckless and depraved indifference to human life in the design, operation and maintenance of the Union Carbide facility in Bhopal” (II) that the defendants are liable for fraud and civil contempt for lawful total failure to comply with the lawful orders of the courts of both the United States and India.

Chernobyl Disaster

On April 26, 1986 a series of explosion in one of the reactors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine (Northern part of the Soviet Union) blew the massive roof off the reactor building and flew radioactive debris and dust high into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread over much of the Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and other parts of Europe and vertically encircled the planet.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.

Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy

The choice of the antimicrobial used for the treatment of an infection is influenced by several factor: the age of the patient, the site of infection, immune status of the patient, efficacy of the drug, the profile of adverse effects, the prevalence of anti-microbial resistance and the concomitant presence of other systemic diseases or organ dysfunction.
The cephalosporins include three generations of agents. The second generation extends the antimicrobial spectrum of the first generation to include wide range of gram negative rods and Pseudomonas.
The -lactams act by inhibiting the incorporation of peptidoglycon into the bacterial cell wall. Penicilin G still remains the drug of choice for syphilis, meningococci, clostridia and pneumococcous. Ampicillin has an extended spectrum of activity aganst gram negative rods(Salmonella, Hemophilus influenzae). Penicillinase-resistant penicilins are the drugs of choice for infections due to -lactamase producing staphylococci. Piperacillin and ticarcillin are antipseudomonal penicillins.

Diagnostic methods in infectious diseases

Microbiologic confirmation of an infectious diseses may be obtained by direct demonstration of the organism, by growing the organism in culture or by serologic method.
Direct demonstration of an infective agent may be:
 By direct microscopy: India ink preparation(cryptococi), dark ground illumination(vibrio spirochestes), KOH preparation(dermatophytes) and wet wount(stool parasites).
 By staining:Gram stain(malaria),Giemsa stain(chlamydia), Ziehl-Nielsen stain(acid-fast bacilli), silver stains(pneumocystis).
 By antigen detection using latex agglutination teste. (meningococcus, pneumcococcus) and enzyme immunoassay.
 Culture method: Proper collection technique(for clinical specimen), suitable transport and culture media and optimal growth conditions may be requuired for fastidious organisms(such as anaerobes), phenotyphic characterization may be done and antibiotic sensitivity determined after culture of the organism.
 Serologic method: This method may be the only method for diagnosing viral, rickettisal, chalamydial and mycoplasma infections. Serology also provides supportive evidnce for certain bacterial infections( also for streptococci, widal for typhoid).

Fever

Fever of more than three weeks duration remaining undiagnosed after a week of hospitalization is defined as pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO).
PUO may be due to the infections, malignancy, inflammatory diseases, drugs or factitious. Infections are the leading causes of PUO tuberculosis often extrapulmonary, HIV infection, infective endocarditis, prolonged mononucleosis, intraabdominal abscess and fungal infections.
Malignancies associated with PUO are lymphomas, leukemia, renal cell carcinoma and hepatoma. Immunoinflammatory causes of PUO include SLE and adult Still’s diseases.
A proper detailed history and physical examination is critical in estabilishing a dignosis and for planing investigations. The pattern of fever is seldom diagnostic by itself. Drug history, occupational hisory and sexual practices are important areas that need to be investigated.
Routine haematologic and urinary investigations, serum chemistry and chest X-ray are important investigations in all patients. A markedly elevated ESR may indicate an infection or immunoinflammatory diseases, temporal athritis, Still’s diseases. US/CT may be obtained for evaluating hepatobiliary, renal, retroperitoneal and pelvic sources of PUO and for screening for occult primaries. An echocardiogram may be ordered if endocarditis is suspected. Biopsy of the bone marrow or liver may be useful if the non-invasive investigations do not yield a definitive diagnosis.
In the absence of a definite diagnosis, a therapeutic trial of antitubercular therapy may be instituted for six weeks.
Causes of prolonged fever
• Infections
o Polygenic infection: pyogenic abscess, cholangitis, pelvic abscess, diverticular abscess, thermbophlebitis.
o Vascular infection: Infective endocartitis, infected vascular access devices.
o Chronic granulomatious infection: Tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial infections, fungal infection.
o Other prolonged bacterial and rickettisial illnesses: Brucellosis, chronic meningococcemia.
• Immunoinflammatory diseases: Systemic lumps erythematosus, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis(stills diseases), vasculitis including giant cell arthritis.
• Neoplasms: Primary (renal, pancreas, hepatic, lung, colon), secondary(hepatic secondaries), lymphoid neoplasms(lymphomas).
• Granulomatous conditions: Sarcoidosis.
• Metabolic and familial conditions: Familial Mediterranean fever, Fabry’s diseases.
• Drug induced fever
• Factitious fever
• Undiagnosed fever.

Infection and immunity:

Infection and immunity: The result of any infection depends partly on the virulence and numbers of the invading organisms and partly on the state of the patients defences against them. The state of defences depends upon the two factors: the degree of natural immunity inherited from the parents, which may be reduced by such general influences as malnutrition, worry and overwork and whether there is any acquired immunity resulting from the previous infection with this particular organism. Most infectious diseases confer life long specific immunity. So that second attacks are very unusual. Furthermore, suitable injections of killed or weakened organisms or their toxins may stimulate this specific immunity without actively causing any clinical illness: this fact is the basis of the immunization procedures which are so important in the prevention of diseases such as diptheria, tetanus, poliomyelitis and typhoid. Passive immunization means conferring temporary protection against a diseases by injecting serum which has been taken from someone with an active immunity and which therefore contains a high concentrated of specific antibodies.
Carriers:Some people who are themselves immune from a particular infectious diseases may nevertheless harbour the specific organisms and transmit them from time to time to susceptible persons, either by direct contact or by infecting food or water. This carrier state is particularly important in the spread of typhoid fever.
Routes of infection: The invading organism usually gains access to the patient either in inspired air “droplet infection” or in contaminated food or drink.
Incubation period: After gaining access to the tissues of a susceptible individual, the invading consolidate their position before the symptoms of the diseases appear. This interval is known as the different infectious diseases, but remains in the constant in each of them. The approximate length fever is as follows below:
Less than 7 days Diptheria, Scarlet fever, Measles
10 to 14 days Whooping cough, Small pox, Enteric fever
14 to 21 days Chicken pox, German measles, Mumps.
It is important to know the incubation period of the various specific fevers, since it is occasionally helpful in diagnosis if the date of exposure to infection is known and also because it enables one to forecast the possible appearance of the diseases in people who have been in contact with the small pox it may be advisable to isolate such contacts until it is known whether or not they have contracted the diseases: the duration of this quarantine is worked out by adding a few days to the known incubation period.

Infectious diseases

Definition-Although the term “infectious diseases” might be logically be applied to any illness which results from invasion of the body by a microorganism, its use is customarily restricted to those diseases which spread by direct contact from person to person.At this time we should not be concerned with diseases like pneumonia or bacterial endocarditis which though due to infection can safely be nursed in general wards without special barrier precautions.
The occurance of illness in human is the result of the complex interactions between the responsible agent(exposure) the host and the environment( the epidemiological triad).
The virulence of an organism depends on its infectivity(ability to colonise) and its pathogenicity(ability to damage).
Diseases which are associated with a long incubation period are more difficult to control. The first lines of host defence against microorganisms are the physical and chemical barriers: these include the skin, mucosa, normal secretions, internal sphinchters and the resident endogenous flora.
Initially, microorganisms elicit a non-specific inflammatory host response: the recruitment of polymorphonuclear cells and the elaboration of cytokines are important components of this response. The macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system(splenic and alveolar macrophages, hepatic Kupffer cells, renal masangial cells and CNS microglia) play an important role in this response.
An organism specific immune response is also mounted by the host: activation of T and B lymphocytes culminates in immunoglobulin production and complement activation. Cell mediated immunity plays a ritical role in cambating intracellular bacteria.
Bacteremia refers to the presence of viable bacteria in blood. Infection refers to the presence of a microorganism in the body with a local inflammatory response. Sepsis refers to the presence of microorganism in the body with a systemic inflammatory response. Severe sepsis refers to sepsis associated with organ dysfunction, perfusion abnormalities or hypotension. Hypertension which is the main problem at present.

Conservation

Conservation is the management of the benefits of all life including human kind of the biosphere so that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet needs and aspirations of the future generations.
Conservation of biological resources or natural resources has the following objectives:
 To maintain the essential ecological process and life supporting system.
 To preserve biological diversity.
 To ensure that any utilization of species and ecosystems is sustainable.
Further we can say, fundamentally here are two reasons for conservations if can either benefit for human beings or for the benefit for the species.
Conservation involves the following four major proceses:
• Preservation of the endangered habitats or species.
• Management of ecosystem.
• Rreclamation of damaged habitats.
• Creation of new habitats.
Mainly there are two types of conservation.
• Ex-situ conservation
• In-situ conservation.
In situ conservation
In situ is the conservation of natural resources in their natural habitats or area of origin. The wildlife is conserved in protected areas systems such as national parks, wildlife reserve, conservation areas. In situ conaervation is the best method for the conservation in long run as the animals adapted to the natural condition since generations.


Ex situ conservation
Ex situ conservation is the conservation of natural resources outside their natural habitats or area of origin. An artificial but similarenvironment or habitats is maintained in place different than the original.Wildlife of threatened categories are kept in captivity which are artificially breeded. This method ensures that the species does not extinct. After the successful breeding in captivity, the offsprings can be reintroduced in natural environment. Examples botanical garden, zoo, zoological garden, aquarium, gene bank, etc.
Conservation of natural resources is the challenging task of the world. Conservation cannot be achieved in isolation. For the conservation of natural resources, these must be global alliance. The conservation education and ethnics should be imparted to all levels of society. The future of humanity depends upon the conservation of natural resources.
In practice following principles are to be adopted for the conservation of natural resources:
 Reduce: Resources are limited and therefore we must not waste resources. Natural resources should be use only to meet basic needs. Reduction in consumption of resources will result in the reduction of wastage of resources and less production of waste materials. For e.g. creating awarness can reduce the use of petroleum products.
 Reuse: Reuse involves using the same product again and again in its original form. For e.g. glass, beverage bottles, etc. can be collected, washed and refilled. Reuse reduces energy use and pollution.
 Recycling: Items containing iron and aluminium account for 94% of all metals used. Damaged metals are collected, melted and converted into new products. Papers and glasses are also recycled. This process also saves energy and causes less pollution. Reuse or recycling process is called resources recovery.

Variety in the volcano

Variety in the volcano
Based on the history of the activity done by Volcano
 Active-These volcanoes are currently errupting or exhibiting unrest through earthquakes and other gas emissions.
 Dormant-These volcanoes are inactive, but have not been so long enough to be declared extinct.
 Extinct-These volcanoes have been inactive in all of therecorded history.

Based on the shape Volcanoes are

 Volcanic cone-These are among the simplest volcanic formations. These are built up of ejected materials around a volcanic cones are differentiated into cinder cones, spatter cones, ash cones and tuff cones. Cinder cones(Scoria cones) are built almost entirely of loose volcanic fragments called cinders. Hot fluid lava clots are called spatter. When spewed spatter falls back to the earth the clots weld together and solidify, forming steep-sided spatter cones. Fallen ash forms ash cone, which becomes a”tuff cone” or “tuff ring” once the loose ash particles weld together.
 Shield Volcano- Shield volcanoes are formed by easily flowing lava that has low viscosity. Their heights are typically about 1/20th of their widths. The lower slopes are gentle but the middle slopes become steeper and then flatten at the summit. Many of the largest volcanoes on Earth are shield volcanoes. The Mauna Loa(Hawaii) is the world’s largest shield volcano.
 Strato volcano- This is a tall, conical volcano with gentle lower slopes that rises steeply near the summit. The summit usually has a small crater. Many of the most dangerous and explosive volcanoes are stratovolcanoes. For example; Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon(Phillipines) and Mt. Agua(Guatemala).
Volcanic Erruptions
An erruptions begins when pressure on a magma chamber forces magma up and out the volcano’s vents. Of course, sideways- directed volcanic explosions(lateral blasts) can shoot ejected material at very high speeds for quite a distance. When magma reaches the Earht’s surface, it is called Lava. Lava may flows as gentle streams called lava flows or it may erupt violently into the air along with the lava are called pyroclastic rocks. This type of eruptions depends somewhat on the amount of gases and silica in the magma. The amount of Silica determines the viscosity of the magma. Steam is what powers the explosion.

Chrysler motors in the market

Chrysler group is working on a new hybrid minivan that doesn’t use batteries or electric motors to drive it, the automaker announced with the Environmental protection Agency.
By the end of next year a Town and Country van built around a hybrid system that relies on pumping-up hydraulic fluid, rather than expensive batteries, will be up and running, Chrysler said. The so-called hydraulic hybrid system was developed at the EPA,s Ann Arbour laboratory and the agency has been testing for years in commercial trucks.
Chrysler wants to use it for light-duty trucks, minivans and large passengers cars. Instead of storing electricity in a battery pack, the hydraulic hybrid system stores energy normally lost during braking to drive pumps that squeeze hydraulic fluid into a large on board tank that also contains a nitrogen-filled bladder. The nitrogen bladder acts like a spring, pushing back against the fluid. When a river is approcahing a stop sign, some of the breaking energy pumps fluid into the tank. As with most hybrid vehicles, the gasoline engine shuts off completely when the vehicle stops. When it’s time to go again, the pressure in the tank is released to push hydraulic motors that turn the wheels. When it’s needed, the gas engine takes over again.The system increases fuel efficiency by about 30% to 35% in overall driving and up to 60% in city driving, according to the EPA.
Among the benefits of the system, according to EPA , is its low cost and simplicity. Once produced in high volumes, the system will pay for itself through fuel savings in less than three years, the EPA predicts. Battery electric hybrid cars typically take much longer.”The EPA and Chrysler are working together to explore the possibilities for making this technology affordable and accessible to drivers everywhere,” EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson.
Hybrid cars currently make up less than two percent of all new car sales, with Toyota’s Prius model making up the largest number far with Toyota introducing a new version later this year. Chrysler is working to improve the fuel economy of its vehicle line-up and has been working to rapidly revamp its offerings, but does not currently have any hybrids on the market.

Natural Hazards

Natural Hazards
Natural hazards are defined as , “those elements of the phyical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces extraneous to him.” The prefix “natural” shows that these exclude phenomenon that are a result of human action. An event that cause large numbers of fatalities and tremendous loss of property is a ‘natural disaster.’
Violent volcano
One of the most explosively violent elements on Earth is that of an errupting volcano as it spews forth molten lava. There are few sights more awe-inspiring than the sight of red hot lava glinting through the cracks on the softy black crust as the river of molten matter winds its way through the landscape. The most common conception about a volcano is that it is a mountain with a hole/crater at the top through which a lava escapes. Not everybody realizes that unlike most mountains, which are pushed up from below, volcanoes are built up by an accumulation of the same materials that they eject.
Volcano Architecture
A volcano constitutes a vent, a pipe, a crater and a cone.
Vent-This is the opening through which volcanic materials is ejected. A central vent underlies the summit crater of the volcano. It is connected to a magma chamber, which is the main storage area for material that is finally ejected.
Pipe- This is a passageway through which the ejected magma rises to the surface.
Crater-This is the ionic bowl-shaped depression at the top of the volcano.
Cone- Solidified lava, ashes and cinder form the cone and it rises higher with each erruption. The sides of the volcano often contain fractures that connect to the central vent or to shallow magma chambers. Magma is ejected through the sides of the volcano via these fractures. Such erruptions lead to cone shaped accumulations called parasitic cones. Fractures are also conduits for escaping gases, which are released through openings called fumaroles.
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Is medicine from tobacco possible?

Tobacco isn’t famous for its health benefits. But now scientists have succeded in using genetically modified tobacco plants to produce medicines for its several auto immmune and inflammatory diseases, including diabetes. The research is published in the open access journal BMC Biotechnology.
A large team of scientists from several European research organizations have participated in the study as a part of the Pharma planta project. Led by professor Mario Pezzotti at the University of Verona, Scientists have created transgenic tobacco plants that would produce biologically active interlukin-10, a potent anti inflammatory cytokine. They tried two different veersions of interlukin-10(one from a mouse and the other from virus, and the generated plants in which this protein was targeted to three different compartments within the cell to see which would work most effectively.
The researchers found that tobacco plants were able to process both forms of interlukin-10 correctly, producing the active cytokine at high enough levels. The next step will be to feed these plants to mice with autoimmune diseases to find out how effective they are.
The scientists are keen to use the plants to see whether repeated small dose could help prevent type-1 Diabetes mellitus, in combinaation with other auto-antigens associated with the disease.
According to Pezzotti, Transgenic plants are attractive systems for the production of Therapeutic proteins because they offer the possibility of large scale production of foreign proteins at low cost, and they have low maintenance requirements. The fact that they can be eaten, which delivers the drug where it is needed, thus avoiding lengthy purification procedures, is another advantage compared with traditional drug synthesis.

Grand opening of the Tourisn Year 2011

Today at 11am, Tourism year 2011 is going to be opened with a grand ceremony at the Dasharath Stadium.

Ring Road is Declared No parking zone

In a bid to mitigate road accident and regulate traffic system inside the Kathmandu valley, the metropolitan traffic police division has declared 26 kilometer long ring road a no parking zone from Sunday.
On Sunday, police took action against the owner of the 86 vehicles parked in the different places of ring road including Tilganga, Chabahil, Balkhu, Sanepa, Kusunti and Sinamangal. The vehicles that were parked in different prohibited areas and hindered vehicular movement were fined under the existing law.
Disrict Superintendent of Police Basanta Panta of Metropolitan Traffic Police Division said stringent actions will be taken if people remain adamant about the illegal parking. If the situation does not improve, we will be forced to resort to stricker measures to implement the rule he further add.
In a bid to ensure effective implementation of the new measures, Metropolitan Traffic Police Division has deployed around 50 personnel from the traffic & civil police to monitor the ring road area round the clock. According to Panta, the no parking mission directed by the metropolitan police commisioners office on its first stage would focus on clearing the parked vehicles from the ring road and the foot paths on either side of it. We will be informing the public about the new rule said Panta. For vehicles entering the valley from other districts, we will disseminate the message at the Thankot and Nagdhunga check points.
On its second stage, the drive will clear the green belt circle round the ring road. According to Panta , 25 meters on either side of the road will be cleared and declared a ‘non- parking area.’ Action wil be taken against the vehicles parked in places except the ones designated for parking said Basanta Panta, the District Superintendent of Police.

Limnology

Limnology is the word derived from the Greek word ‘Lime’ which means lake and the logos means study. Thus Limnology is the study of fresh water bodies. It studies the physical, chemical & biological properties of fresh water ecosystem. It includes the study of (natural as well as artificial) lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, springs, wetlands, groundwater, etc.
In other words, Limnology is the science of studies of the freshwater and its organisms as well as its physical & chemical properties.
Types of ecosystem:
 Terresterial ecosystem
 Aquatic ecosystem
Terresterial ecosystem are of three types as:
 Grassland ecosystem
 Forest ecosystem
 Desert ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem are of two types:
 Fresh water ecosystem (0.5 gm of salt per litre)
 Marine ecosystem (30.37 gm of salt per litre)
Fresh water ecosystem are of two types:
 Lotic i.e. running water ecosystem like river, stream, etc.
 Lentic i.e. Stagnant water ecosystem like lake, pond, etc.
Scope of Limnology
As we know water resource are very useful for human beings for their daily life activities. More over the water is used in agriculture, industrial purposes, household purposes, irrigation, recreational activities as well as environmental purposes. The water we require is fresh water and is available only 25% whereas marine water is about 97.5% on the earth. However, fresh water is a renewable source of water yet the world’s supply of fresh water is constantly decreasing because demand exceeds supply in many parts of the world population at an unbelievable rate. Thus, many more countries are expected to experience the lack of fresh water in the near future.
Unfortunately, our rivers , ponds, lakes, streams have been a dumping site of the solid & liquid waste (sewage) which has led great impact to the aquatic organisms, aesthetic & recreational values of the aquatic ecosystem. Thus, the scope of limnology is very essential for human walfare for the environmental conservation of the aquatic organisms habitats and evaluating the water quality for not being to degrade the quality of it. It also describes the type of lakes and ponds according to the chemical & biological parameter analysis. For e.g. high BOD (10 mg/l) & COD (100mg/l) & Phosphorous>0.1 mg/l together with the dominance of BGA (10 genera) suggests lake or ponds as mesotrophic for e.g. Rani Pokhari. Likewise high ammonia (18.7 mg/l ) and Phosphorous(2.6 mg/l) suggests as eutrophic lake e.g. Kamal pokhari and fair oxygen content (DO>6mg/l) , BOD and COD < 12mg/l , low nutrients Nitrogen & Phosphorous <(0.1mg/l) suggests the lake or pond as Oligotrophic lake for e.g. Taudaha.
Types of fresh water
Less than one percentage of salt concentration in water bodies are called fresh water. There are three types of freshwater as:
 Ponds and lakes
 Streams and rivers
 Wetlands
Ponds and lakes
Ponds are smaller in size than lake and are not so deep, lakes are larger in size than a pond and are generally deep. According to the depth & its location lakes are of following types:
 Glacial lake-This is the lake situated at the high altitude formed by the melting of ice.
 Tectonic lake- This is the lake formed due to the upliftment of tectonic plate. Found in mid hills of Nepal. Phewa, Begnas Syapru Tal, etc. are the examples of Tectonic lake.
 Oxbow lake- Lakes found in the Terai region. Bish Hazari Tal, Gosain kunda,Ghoda ghodi Tal etc. are some examples of Oxbow lake. During the downstream flow of river the river forms turn which form a lake named Oxbow.
 Crater lake- Crater formed on the top volcanic mountain peak after volcano get dominant & precipitation get collected in this area forming a lake called Crater lake. For e.g. Mt. Mazma oregon of USA.
 Artificial lake-Lake created by the human beings due to excavation of a site or dammaging stream or river for hydropower processes. For e.g. Rani Pokhari, Strip Pits, Querry Pits, borrow Pits & reservoir deep.
Stream & Rivers
They, change their routes from head water to the mouth deep. Diversity high in middle part of river due to high DO value. The upper part water is cooler and high amount of oxygen. So, trout, salmon, etc. are present. The middle part of river/ stream has a rapid increasing in width along with its species diversity. Mostly aquatic green plants and algae are found.
At the down part of river becomes muddy, oxygen level decreases light penetration is lower than upstream, low fish and less diversity occurs because of lower oxygen level. Species like Catfish, Crab, etc are only found.
Wetlands
Wetlands is the marsh, swampy, fenny & the boggy area with richest diversity among all the ecosystem. Macrophytes like Nelumbo,Chestnut, Potamogetom, Eichhornia, etc were found.
Physico-Chemical & Biological water Quality index
Water Quality Index-It is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water that refers to the stability of the water to sustain living organisms & other uses such as drinking, bathing, irrigation, for industrial purposes, and also to know the health of the aquatic ecosystems. The water quality index measures dissolved oxygen, pH, Conductivity, total nitrogen & total phosphorous content. The WQI is determined by comparing the water samples according to the set of standards such as APHA standards and European Union drinking water standards, etc. It is an indicator of eutrophication, nutrient pollution, acidification & salinization, etc. Factors leading to the deterioration of water quality are due to domestic water waste, solid waste, industrial waste, man made natural disaster, increase in the use of agro chemicals and change in land use pattern. Some of the water quality index are as follows:
 Dissolved Oxygen(DO)- It is a measure of free oxygen dissolved in water. It is essential for the metabolism of all aerobic aquatic organisms. Reduced levels of DO shows harmful to aquatic lifes & even for the plants too and fish. Therefore, DO in water bodies must be 6.0 mg/l.
 Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD)- It is the amount of oxygen utilized by micro-organisms in decomposing the organic matter. The complete degradation of organic matter may take as long as 20 to 30 days. In practice BOD test has been developed for five days at 20̊c.
 Chlorine-It occurs naturally in all typpes of water. In natural fresh water its concentration is quite low. Chlorine in water is the discharge of domestic wastes or sewage or from industrial effluents. It serves as an indicator of pollution by sewage. For drinking purposes chloride should be 250 mg/l.
 Turbidity-The turbidity in water bodies is caused by the amount of suspended particles of clay, silt, organic matter, etc. Turbidity affect the penetration of light in the water bodies & affects the photosynthesis process as well as for drinking, bathing & for induatrial purposes. For drinking water purposes, the suspended particles must be zero.
 pH- It is the measure of the amount of acidity or alkalinity of a water body. It can affect aquatic organisms by imparting/harming in the process of respiration, growth & development of fish. European Union of drinking water directive parameters showed that the pH of water must be 6.5-8.5.
 Bacteriological quality of drinking water-Organisms such as Escherchia coli must not be detectable in any 100ml sample in the water intended for drinking of an treated water entering the distribution system. Otherwise, it may lead to water borne diseases.
 Conductivity-It is a measure of the ability of water to carry an electric current which depends on the presence of ions. Increase in conductivity leads to change or reduce in aquatic bio-diversity. European Union of drinking water directive parameters shows that the conductivity of water must be 400 micro siemens per centimeter.
 Total Nitrogen & Total Phosphorous- These are the naturally occuring elements essential for all living organisms. Increase in nitrogen or phosphorous in natural water as a result of human activities in the drainage basin e.g. from the agricultural runoff from manure and chemical fertilizers & from municipal and industrial waste discharge, can overstimulate the plant growth and choke off oxygen supplies. If the concentration of total phosphorous in greater than 0.3 mg/l, it can cause algal blooms in lake and ponds. European Union for drinking water directive parameters shows that the total nitrogen should be nitrates 50mg/l and nitrites 0.1 mg/l in aggregate.
The health and the well being of the human being and the ecosystem depend heavily on the quality of the available water resources. Water is necessary for all the biological life. It also supports global food production by providing the fundamental resource upon with agriculture livestock production, fisheries and aquaculture production. Water is crucial for industrial activity & municipal services.
Water quality is at risk from industrial effluents, fertilizer runoff from agricultural land and poorly treated minicipal waste. Most of the nitrogen & phosphorous released into the environment comes from these three sources. Phosphorous & nitrogen are the important nutrients in fresh water but higher concentration of nitrogen & phosporous leads to the eutrophication ( causing algal blooms in water bodies) as a result it causes decrease in oxygen concentration in the water bodies for the aquatic life.
In particular mayflies, stoneflies, caddisfly larvae, trout, salmon, etc. are sensitive to water quality degradation. When water quality become worse the populations of these invertebrates & vertebrates aquatic animals can be expected to decrease or disappear from the water bodies. So, that special attention should be given to the percentage of Mayflies, Stoneflies & Caddisflies in freshwater invertebrate samples from aquatic ecosystem. This percentage is referred to as ‘EPT’an acronym referring to the taxonomic orders Ephemeroptera(mayflies), Plecoptera(Stoneflies) & Tricoptera(Caddisflies).
There is a vital connection between water quality & health. The rivers are the main places for the disposal of urban solid waste, domestic effluents & industrial effluents which are responsible for polluting the water and causing water borne diseases. Poor sanitation/cleanliness, poor water quality has brought about the most prevalent water borne diseases in Nepal such as Diarrhoea(Bacillus coli), Cholera(Vibrio cholerae), Typhoid(Salmonella typhi), etc. by consuming contaminated water & contaminated food as well.
Recommendations
 Effects for managing waste disposal, maintaining drinking water & sewage pipelines, controling open defecation are urgently required.
 Conduct effective awarness programmes for water quality to be needed and must amend & execute water act, rules & regulations if necessary for maintaining the water quality condition.
 Carryout research on water source protection and management.
 Adopt and enforce industrial effluents standards.
Different Zones of Lakes & ponds
There are three zones of lakes on the basis of depth and the penetration of the light as follows:
 Littoral Zone
 Limnetic Zone
 Profundal Zone

Littoral Zone-It is the shalllow zone at the surface of the lakes or ponds. It is the warmest zone wit hdiverse species, several species of algae, rooted & floating aquatic plants, snouts, insects, fishes & amphibians were found and this region has maximum light penetration.
Limnetic Zone-It is the middle part of the lake & ponds where there is warm with light penetration. At this zone maximum species of phytoplanktons & zooplanktons are found.
Profundal Zone-It is the lower part of the lakes or ponds where there is no light penetration due to which this region is colder & darker. Founa such as a toxic organisms are found such as tubificids which feed on dead aquatic organisms or planktons fallen from limnetic zone.
Variation of Temperature in Lakes & Ponds
Lakes & ponds can be divided into two parts from the temperature point of view. The upper part which is below the surface and get direct sunlight is called Epilimniom which has higher teamperature. And the bottom level which receive no sun rays is called Hypolimnion.In between these two region there is one narrow zone called Thermocline where water temperature changes rapidly. During summer temperature can range from cold to 22̊c from bottom to surface. During winter temperature at the bottom is 4̊c and 0̊c i.e.ice form at the surface.

During Spring the fall season there is a mixing of top & bottom water due to the wind which results uniform temperature from top to the bottom around 4̊c. Oxygen is uniform in some temperature. This mixing results uniform oxygen.
Freshwater Bio-Diversity
Some of the freshwater biodiversity are described as follows:
 Macrophytes-These are aquatic plants growing in or near the shore of water bodies. Macrophytes are beneficial to lakes because they provide cover for fish & substrate for aquatic invertebrates. They also produce oxygen which assists well functioning of the lake as a result diversity in organisms increase which may result & provide food for some fish & other aquatic animals. Thus, lack of macrophytes in water body is expected to reduce in population of Sport & Forage fish and waterfowl. In addition, the absence of macrophytes may also indicate water quality problems as a result of excess turbidity, herbicides or salinization and may indicate water quality is good if the analysis of physical, chemical & the biological parameters of the water samples are analysed and found nothing in the water sample. However, an overabundance of macrophytes can also result due to high nutrients from various sources like agriculture runoff, detergents that washed out in the lakes and that may interface lake functioning preventing recreational activities such as swimming, fishin & bathing. Thus, Macrophytes are the excellent indicators of watershed health because they provide information about nutrients, light condition at the bottom of the water bodies (limnetic & profundal zone), toxic contaminants, turbidity, water level change & salt concentration. Macrophytes found on the water bodies are:-Submerged-Hydrilla, Potamogetom, Utricularia, Emergent-Typha, Scirpus, Nelumbo, Floating-Lemma, Wolfia, Water Hyacinth(Eichhornia Crassipes).
 Periphytes or Aufwuchs- These are the organisms both plant & animals attached to the stems and leaves of rooted plants or other surfaces such as rocks projecting above the bottom for example:- Pond snails, Nymphs of Dragonflies, Mayflies, Stoneflies, Flatworms, etc. These are the producers and secondary consumers. These are also sensitive indicators of environmental change in Lotic water because they are attached to the substrate, rocks,l etc. For example, diatoms in particular are useful indiactors of biological condition of water & they are Ubiquitous & found in all lotic systems and represent good water quality.
 Benthic Organisms- Aquatic invertebrates that live in the bottom parts of the water are called Benthic micro invertebrates or benthos (benthic-bottom, macro-large, invertebrate-without backbone) and make good indicators of water bodies health because they live in the bottom of the water for all or most of their life, stay in areas suitable for their survival, are easy to collect and are helpful to know the water quality according to the types of macroinvertebrates found on water bodies. For example, Stoneflies, Dragonflies are considered as clean water benthos whereas presence of tubificids indicates the water bodies as polluted due to excess organic wastes.


 Planktons
The word plankton comes from the Greek word ‘planktons’ which means ‘drifting’. Planktons are microscopic organisms that float freely in water bodies. Plankton is made up of tiny plants(phytoplankton) and tiny animals(zooplankton) and bacteria.
 Phytoplanktons-They are primary producers(autotrophs). They are the base of the food chain. They use Chrolophyll to convert energy(sunlight), inorganic chemicals(nitrogen & dissolved carbondioxide) to carbohydrates or chemical energy. Phytoplanktons are the food for the zooplankton and fish and other secondary consumers. For e.g. diatoms, Cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates, spirogyra, euglena, etc.
 Zooplanktons-These are microscopic animals that eat other planktons. Abundance of zooplankton will help to decline the phytoplanktons populations by preying on them and increases predation by juvenile fishes reduces the zooplankton populations. Some zooplanktons are larval or immature stages of larger including molluscs like (Snails & Squad), crustaceans(daphnia, Krill,copepods), fish, etc.
 Fish-Fish are useful indicators to assess the water quality either it is clean or polluted. Fish living in water bodies is not enough for the understanding of the people but also need to know what kinds of fish are there how many and their indicators of watershed condition because they live in water all of their life and indicate water resources quality providing information about the physical, chemical and biological condition of water bodies. For example, trout and salmon represents in water bodies indicate good water quality whereas catfish & carpfish represents water is being dirty or becoming polluted.

Impressing the boss across the table during Interview

Interview can be nerve taking racking experience, even for the most seasoned interviewee with plenty to worry about, it can sometimes seem an additional stress to then consider the impression we are leaving behind. But, it doesn’t have to be that difficult and with some prior preparation you can relax during your interview, with the knowledge of that you are creating the right impression.
Don’t be late
Double check your interview details. Prior to your interview details you know the location and if necessary drive there before hand so you know exactly where it is how to get there and how long it takes this will help alleviate stress on the interview day.
If you need parking check beforehand the parking situation, you may need to reserve a park or you may need to find public parking close by so investigate your interview isn’t during peak hour there can always be traffic or public transport delays so allow extra time you can always wait in the car or in a nearby café.
Research the company and Role
Try to obtain a job description prior to the interview.
Consider possible questions that you might be asked and think about how you might answer them.
What do you know about the company? Do some research, most of the company have their details on their website if you are applying via an agency ask them.
Prepare some questions that you would like to ask about the role, what it is like to work for the company and the company culture.
Look the part
If you are applying for the management post then you need to look like a manager. Equally if you are applying for a creative role in an organization that fosters free thinking rather than suits, dress as they would. If you’re not sure than dress professionally.
Don’t forget the smaller details about the shiny shoes, clean nails and a neat a haircut show that you want to make a good impression.

Be prepared
Have your CV with you and any relevant details such as a portfolio. If you are relying on technology have a backup.
Body language during interview
Try to be aware of how you are sitting and any distracting behavior, such as playing with paper, this can create the impression that you are nervous. Offer a firm hand shake and hold confident eye contact during the interview. A smile can help alleviate your nerves and creates a friendly and open atmosphere.
Be confident and positive
It’s very difficult to be confident at an interview and you also don’t want to appear overly confident that you have the job. But, be positive and confident and convince yourself that you do have the skills and ability to do the job. If you can convince yourself then it will be much easier to convince someone else.
Better try to find the better positive responsibilities to all questions for example- If there is a career gap in your CV explains what the skills you might have gained during this period.
If you can avoid negative responses your interviewer doesn’t want to hear about all the problems you had in your last role and it might create the impression that you’re difficult to work with.
It’s important that you approach your interview with confidence. With a little preparation you can minimize any potential hiccups an the day that might cause stress and anticipating possible questions can give you the edge on having well thought out responses. Show an interest in the company that you want to work for and ask questions that demonstrate your knowledge and preparation. Approach your interview relaxed and don’t forget to smile.

Habitat Damage

The rapid increase in the population leads to a damage for more houses and industries and the need for food requires more acres of cropland to be cultivated. Finding land for the uses often means replacement of wild habitats with human made environments.
The agricultural land covers about 9 million square miles of the world’s land surface which represents nearly all of the land on our planet that is easily cultivated, because ice, mountains and deserts account for the large percentage of the earth’s surface. Much of the farmland currently under cultivation is being damaged as farmers try to squeeze more of the crops out of the soil. Which means that the soil may not be fertile in future, creating the need for new farmland? This is likely to put increasing pressure on the world’s remaining wilderness.
Many other types of development demand land. Road, industry, mines and dams all need land and their construction often means disappearance of some habitats and the disruption of the others.
Although population growth in the richer countries of the world is low but the people in these countries use far more resources than those in the poor countries. Extracting resources damages the habitats. The copper taken from this mine in Utah will go to make wire or pipes, but the mountain will never be the same. Vast amounts of rocks are destroyed, disrupting the area’s wildlife.
Overgrazing of cattle in the dry grassland south of the Sahara Desert is habitat damage. Plants help to recycle rainfall by giving off moisture from their leaves. When the vegetation is stripped away, the region becomes drier. Millions of people are affected by drought in this part of Africa and wild animals like Cheetah, Gazelles and Antelope which used to roam here have lost their habitat due to the rapid population explosion in the world.

Environmental Geology

Landform and its development
Landform is that piece of land which has more or less similar morphological features & are formed by certain geological process like plain, pleatues, valley, basin, etc. All these processes which can shape different shapes of landform is termed as geological process. Erosion, transportation, mass movement, etc. effect landform development. Earthquake, volcano, tectonism are the endogenous process that cause landform development.
Types of landform
 Hill/Mountain
Difference in elevation i.e. about 600-700m from sea level is hill and above 700m is classified as mountain. Peak is the single mountain.They’re higher elevated landforms than its surroundings. Hill & mountain is formed in range whereas peak is single one.
 Valley/basin
It is the negative landform which is depressed than its surroundings. Valley is that part of landform whose one part is depressed but there are elevated part. Basin is that part of landform whose all parts are elevated.
 Pleatau
They are the table like landforms which rises adoptly from its surrounding and have broad flat top. In Nepal there is Piedomont pleatau at the foot of mountain.

 Continental Shield
It is the background landforms of all types which has general slope and composed of oldest rock. It is background for all types of land forms. It cover up just like designing in cloth.
 Plain
It is that part of landforms which is the flat area.
Factors controlling landform development
The Geomorphic process of the development of landform is divided into two parts:
 Endogenous- Diastrophism or tectonism, volcanism, etc.
 Exogenous- Degradation & Aggradation.
Degradation is the lowering of the land surface by the geomorphic agents like wind, glacier, water, etc.
In Volcanism, elevated part id formed more than depressed part.
In tectonism, new landform is developed due to the tectonic movement of the internal materials of the earth.
 Climate- It is that part of the factors which defines or accelerates the rate of weathering & erosion. It converts steep slope into gentle slope. The south facing slope is gentle. The south facing slope gets more sun rays & precipitation than north facing slope & chemical weathering enhances. The civilization is also affected by climate.
 Gradient(Slope)- It is the ratio of the vertical distance to the horizontal distance. More the area of gradation faster is the erosion & slow weathering. Assent velocity increases i.e. KE increases then action of agent will be high & erosion faster up.
 Parent material- If soft & loose soil is distributed new landform is developed.
Air as the agent for morphological process
The differential heating of sunrays in different part cause wind.
Action performed by air
 Erosion – Deflation, Abrassion, Attrision.
 Transportation- Traction, Suspension, Saltation.
 Deposition.
Erosion
The process of wearing and tearing out of the surface materials by wind is called Erosion.
 Deflation- It is the process of lifting up of the loose particles by wind. Deflation can form different kinds of landforms as
 Desert pavement- When all the fine particles are deflated out, there will be coarse particles left and seems like paved on the ground known as desert pavement.
 Hamada- Hard rocky matter left behind by the action of deflation.
 Deflation blows/hollows or Oasis- Depression or negative landforms that are created by deflation action are confined or concentrated in a particular place. When depression are filled with water then it is called Oasis.
 Abrassion- It is the action of rubbing or stretching

Ecology

• What is Ecology ?
Ecology (derived from greek word oikos , house or place to live and logos , study of) is the study of how living organisms interact with one another and with non- living environment .In fact it is the study of connections in nature.
• What are Organisms ?
An organism is any form of life .The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms . Organisms may conisists of single cell or many cells .On the basis of their cell structure, organisms can be classified as their eukaryotic an prokaryotic.
Each cell of eukaryotic organism
 Is surrounded by a membre
 Has a distinct nucleus ( a membrane- bounded structure containing genetice material in the form of DNA).
 Has several other internal parts called organelles. All organelles except bacteria are eukaryotic.
• What is Population?
A population consists of a group of interacting individuals of the same species that occupy a specific area at the same time.
• What are communities, Ecosystem and the Biosphere?
Populations of the different species occupying a particular place make up a community or biological community.
An ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and with their non-living environment of matter and energy.
• What are species?
Organisms that resemble with one another in appearance, behaviour, chemistry and generic make up.
Asexual reproduction is common in species such as bacteria with only one cell, which divides to produce two identical cells that are clones or replicas of the original cell.
Sexual reproduction occurs in organisms that produce offsprings by combining sex cells or gametes( ovum & sperm) from both parents. This produce offsprings that have combinations of genetic traits from each parents. Sexual reproduction usually gives the species the greater chance of survival under changing environmental conditions than the genetic clones produced by asexual reproduction.
• Biosphere
All of the earth’s ecosystems together make up what we call the biosphere.
Or
The portion of the planet occupied by life where biotic organisms exists and interact with their non-living environment is called biosphere. It includes hydrosphere & the Parts of the lower atmosphere and upper Lithosphere.
The goal of ecology is to understand the interaction in this thin layer, life supporting global skin or membrane of air, water, soil and organisms.
• What sustains life on Earth?
Life on earth depends on three inter-connected factors:
 The one way flow of high quality energy from the sun through materials and living things in their feeding interactions, into the environment as low quality energy (mainly heat dispersed into air or water molecules at low temperature and eventually back into space as heat.
 The cycling of matter (atoms, ions or the molecules needed to survive the living organisms) through parts of the biosphere.The earth is closed to significant inputs of the matter from space. Thus, essentially all the nutrients used by organisms are again and again for life to continue.

Population Explosion

The world’s human population is growing rapidly. Every day about 230,000 babies were born, adding to more than six billion of us who already inhabit the planet. Every second the population of world is growing.
Children are important for the future but the growing population can damage the habitats. More and more of the underdeveloped areas were being cleared to provide people with food, resources and places to live in.
The advances in the medicine in the last decades have become the reason for the population explosion due to which people live longer.
Yet in the poor countries proper medical care is not always available and many infants die. Families on these areas rely on having many members to bring in money or to farm the land, because the survival is uncertain, women have more children in case some die.
In such a case families get poorer as they struggle to feed all their children, as the poverty grows they are forced to clear wild habitats in order to farm.
The expansion of urban areas has been particularly rapid in poor countries as people move from countryside to the city to look for the work. Often they cannot find jobs and end up in poverty-stricken shanty towns which grow up around the edges of the cities.
In this way urban areas spread into the wild land causing the rapid explosion of the population in the world. So, it is to be controlled in time to save the Earth from this rapid fire, which may destroy this world if this trend continues for a centuries.