Infection and immunity:

Infection and immunity: The result of any infection depends partly on the virulence and numbers of the invading organisms and partly on the state of the patients defences against them. The state of defences depends upon the two factors: the degree of natural immunity inherited from the parents, which may be reduced by such general influences as malnutrition, worry and overwork and whether there is any acquired immunity resulting from the previous infection with this particular organism. Most infectious diseases confer life long specific immunity. So that second attacks are very unusual. Furthermore, suitable injections of killed or weakened organisms or their toxins may stimulate this specific immunity without actively causing any clinical illness: this fact is the basis of the immunization procedures which are so important in the prevention of diseases such as diptheria, tetanus, poliomyelitis and typhoid. Passive immunization means conferring temporary protection against a diseases by injecting serum which has been taken from someone with an active immunity and which therefore contains a high concentrated of specific antibodies.
Carriers:Some people who are themselves immune from a particular infectious diseases may nevertheless harbour the specific organisms and transmit them from time to time to susceptible persons, either by direct contact or by infecting food or water. This carrier state is particularly important in the spread of typhoid fever.
Routes of infection: The invading organism usually gains access to the patient either in inspired air “droplet infection” or in contaminated food or drink.
Incubation period: After gaining access to the tissues of a susceptible individual, the invading consolidate their position before the symptoms of the diseases appear. This interval is known as the different infectious diseases, but remains in the constant in each of them. The approximate length fever is as follows below:
Less than 7 days Diptheria, Scarlet fever, Measles
10 to 14 days Whooping cough, Small pox, Enteric fever
14 to 21 days Chicken pox, German measles, Mumps.
It is important to know the incubation period of the various specific fevers, since it is occasionally helpful in diagnosis if the date of exposure to infection is known and also because it enables one to forecast the possible appearance of the diseases in people who have been in contact with the small pox it may be advisable to isolate such contacts until it is known whether or not they have contracted the diseases: the duration of this quarantine is worked out by adding a few days to the known incubation period.

Infectious diseases

Definition-Although the term “infectious diseases” might be logically be applied to any illness which results from invasion of the body by a microorganism, its use is customarily restricted to those diseases which spread by direct contact from person to person.At this time we should not be concerned with diseases like pneumonia or bacterial endocarditis which though due to infection can safely be nursed in general wards without special barrier precautions.
The occurance of illness in human is the result of the complex interactions between the responsible agent(exposure) the host and the environment( the epidemiological triad).
The virulence of an organism depends on its infectivity(ability to colonise) and its pathogenicity(ability to damage).
Diseases which are associated with a long incubation period are more difficult to control. The first lines of host defence against microorganisms are the physical and chemical barriers: these include the skin, mucosa, normal secretions, internal sphinchters and the resident endogenous flora.
Initially, microorganisms elicit a non-specific inflammatory host response: the recruitment of polymorphonuclear cells and the elaboration of cytokines are important components of this response. The macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system(splenic and alveolar macrophages, hepatic Kupffer cells, renal masangial cells and CNS microglia) play an important role in this response.
An organism specific immune response is also mounted by the host: activation of T and B lymphocytes culminates in immunoglobulin production and complement activation. Cell mediated immunity plays a ritical role in cambating intracellular bacteria.
Bacteremia refers to the presence of viable bacteria in blood. Infection refers to the presence of a microorganism in the body with a local inflammatory response. Sepsis refers to the presence of microorganism in the body with a systemic inflammatory response. Severe sepsis refers to sepsis associated with organ dysfunction, perfusion abnormalities or hypotension. Hypertension which is the main problem at present.

Conservation

Conservation is the management of the benefits of all life including human kind of the biosphere so that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet needs and aspirations of the future generations.
Conservation of biological resources or natural resources has the following objectives:
 To maintain the essential ecological process and life supporting system.
 To preserve biological diversity.
 To ensure that any utilization of species and ecosystems is sustainable.
Further we can say, fundamentally here are two reasons for conservations if can either benefit for human beings or for the benefit for the species.
Conservation involves the following four major proceses:
• Preservation of the endangered habitats or species.
• Management of ecosystem.
• Rreclamation of damaged habitats.
• Creation of new habitats.
Mainly there are two types of conservation.
• Ex-situ conservation
• In-situ conservation.
In situ conservation
In situ is the conservation of natural resources in their natural habitats or area of origin. The wildlife is conserved in protected areas systems such as national parks, wildlife reserve, conservation areas. In situ conaervation is the best method for the conservation in long run as the animals adapted to the natural condition since generations.


Ex situ conservation
Ex situ conservation is the conservation of natural resources outside their natural habitats or area of origin. An artificial but similarenvironment or habitats is maintained in place different than the original.Wildlife of threatened categories are kept in captivity which are artificially breeded. This method ensures that the species does not extinct. After the successful breeding in captivity, the offsprings can be reintroduced in natural environment. Examples botanical garden, zoo, zoological garden, aquarium, gene bank, etc.
Conservation of natural resources is the challenging task of the world. Conservation cannot be achieved in isolation. For the conservation of natural resources, these must be global alliance. The conservation education and ethnics should be imparted to all levels of society. The future of humanity depends upon the conservation of natural resources.
In practice following principles are to be adopted for the conservation of natural resources:
 Reduce: Resources are limited and therefore we must not waste resources. Natural resources should be use only to meet basic needs. Reduction in consumption of resources will result in the reduction of wastage of resources and less production of waste materials. For e.g. creating awarness can reduce the use of petroleum products.
 Reuse: Reuse involves using the same product again and again in its original form. For e.g. glass, beverage bottles, etc. can be collected, washed and refilled. Reuse reduces energy use and pollution.
 Recycling: Items containing iron and aluminium account for 94% of all metals used. Damaged metals are collected, melted and converted into new products. Papers and glasses are also recycled. This process also saves energy and causes less pollution. Reuse or recycling process is called resources recovery.

Variety in the volcano

Variety in the volcano
Based on the history of the activity done by Volcano
 Active-These volcanoes are currently errupting or exhibiting unrest through earthquakes and other gas emissions.
 Dormant-These volcanoes are inactive, but have not been so long enough to be declared extinct.
 Extinct-These volcanoes have been inactive in all of therecorded history.

Based on the shape Volcanoes are

 Volcanic cone-These are among the simplest volcanic formations. These are built up of ejected materials around a volcanic cones are differentiated into cinder cones, spatter cones, ash cones and tuff cones. Cinder cones(Scoria cones) are built almost entirely of loose volcanic fragments called cinders. Hot fluid lava clots are called spatter. When spewed spatter falls back to the earth the clots weld together and solidify, forming steep-sided spatter cones. Fallen ash forms ash cone, which becomes a”tuff cone” or “tuff ring” once the loose ash particles weld together.
 Shield Volcano- Shield volcanoes are formed by easily flowing lava that has low viscosity. Their heights are typically about 1/20th of their widths. The lower slopes are gentle but the middle slopes become steeper and then flatten at the summit. Many of the largest volcanoes on Earth are shield volcanoes. The Mauna Loa(Hawaii) is the world’s largest shield volcano.
 Strato volcano- This is a tall, conical volcano with gentle lower slopes that rises steeply near the summit. The summit usually has a small crater. Many of the most dangerous and explosive volcanoes are stratovolcanoes. For example; Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon(Phillipines) and Mt. Agua(Guatemala).
Volcanic Erruptions
An erruptions begins when pressure on a magma chamber forces magma up and out the volcano’s vents. Of course, sideways- directed volcanic explosions(lateral blasts) can shoot ejected material at very high speeds for quite a distance. When magma reaches the Earht’s surface, it is called Lava. Lava may flows as gentle streams called lava flows or it may erupt violently into the air along with the lava are called pyroclastic rocks. This type of eruptions depends somewhat on the amount of gases and silica in the magma. The amount of Silica determines the viscosity of the magma. Steam is what powers the explosion.

Chrysler motors in the market

Chrysler group is working on a new hybrid minivan that doesn’t use batteries or electric motors to drive it, the automaker announced with the Environmental protection Agency.
By the end of next year a Town and Country van built around a hybrid system that relies on pumping-up hydraulic fluid, rather than expensive batteries, will be up and running, Chrysler said. The so-called hydraulic hybrid system was developed at the EPA,s Ann Arbour laboratory and the agency has been testing for years in commercial trucks.
Chrysler wants to use it for light-duty trucks, minivans and large passengers cars. Instead of storing electricity in a battery pack, the hydraulic hybrid system stores energy normally lost during braking to drive pumps that squeeze hydraulic fluid into a large on board tank that also contains a nitrogen-filled bladder. The nitrogen bladder acts like a spring, pushing back against the fluid. When a river is approcahing a stop sign, some of the breaking energy pumps fluid into the tank. As with most hybrid vehicles, the gasoline engine shuts off completely when the vehicle stops. When it’s time to go again, the pressure in the tank is released to push hydraulic motors that turn the wheels. When it’s needed, the gas engine takes over again.The system increases fuel efficiency by about 30% to 35% in overall driving and up to 60% in city driving, according to the EPA.
Among the benefits of the system, according to EPA , is its low cost and simplicity. Once produced in high volumes, the system will pay for itself through fuel savings in less than three years, the EPA predicts. Battery electric hybrid cars typically take much longer.”The EPA and Chrysler are working together to explore the possibilities for making this technology affordable and accessible to drivers everywhere,” EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson.
Hybrid cars currently make up less than two percent of all new car sales, with Toyota’s Prius model making up the largest number far with Toyota introducing a new version later this year. Chrysler is working to improve the fuel economy of its vehicle line-up and has been working to rapidly revamp its offerings, but does not currently have any hybrids on the market.

Natural Hazards

Natural Hazards
Natural hazards are defined as , “those elements of the phyical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces extraneous to him.” The prefix “natural” shows that these exclude phenomenon that are a result of human action. An event that cause large numbers of fatalities and tremendous loss of property is a ‘natural disaster.’
Violent volcano
One of the most explosively violent elements on Earth is that of an errupting volcano as it spews forth molten lava. There are few sights more awe-inspiring than the sight of red hot lava glinting through the cracks on the softy black crust as the river of molten matter winds its way through the landscape. The most common conception about a volcano is that it is a mountain with a hole/crater at the top through which a lava escapes. Not everybody realizes that unlike most mountains, which are pushed up from below, volcanoes are built up by an accumulation of the same materials that they eject.
Volcano Architecture
A volcano constitutes a vent, a pipe, a crater and a cone.
Vent-This is the opening through which volcanic materials is ejected. A central vent underlies the summit crater of the volcano. It is connected to a magma chamber, which is the main storage area for material that is finally ejected.
Pipe- This is a passageway through which the ejected magma rises to the surface.
Crater-This is the ionic bowl-shaped depression at the top of the volcano.
Cone- Solidified lava, ashes and cinder form the cone and it rises higher with each erruption. The sides of the volcano often contain fractures that connect to the central vent or to shallow magma chambers. Magma is ejected through the sides of the volcano via these fractures. Such erruptions lead to cone shaped accumulations called parasitic cones. Fractures are also conduits for escaping gases, which are released through openings called fumaroles.
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Is medicine from tobacco possible?

Tobacco isn’t famous for its health benefits. But now scientists have succeded in using genetically modified tobacco plants to produce medicines for its several auto immmune and inflammatory diseases, including diabetes. The research is published in the open access journal BMC Biotechnology.
A large team of scientists from several European research organizations have participated in the study as a part of the Pharma planta project. Led by professor Mario Pezzotti at the University of Verona, Scientists have created transgenic tobacco plants that would produce biologically active interlukin-10, a potent anti inflammatory cytokine. They tried two different veersions of interlukin-10(one from a mouse and the other from virus, and the generated plants in which this protein was targeted to three different compartments within the cell to see which would work most effectively.
The researchers found that tobacco plants were able to process both forms of interlukin-10 correctly, producing the active cytokine at high enough levels. The next step will be to feed these plants to mice with autoimmune diseases to find out how effective they are.
The scientists are keen to use the plants to see whether repeated small dose could help prevent type-1 Diabetes mellitus, in combinaation with other auto-antigens associated with the disease.
According to Pezzotti, Transgenic plants are attractive systems for the production of Therapeutic proteins because they offer the possibility of large scale production of foreign proteins at low cost, and they have low maintenance requirements. The fact that they can be eaten, which delivers the drug where it is needed, thus avoiding lengthy purification procedures, is another advantage compared with traditional drug synthesis.

Grand opening of the Tourisn Year 2011

Today at 11am, Tourism year 2011 is going to be opened with a grand ceremony at the Dasharath Stadium.

Ring Road is Declared No parking zone

In a bid to mitigate road accident and regulate traffic system inside the Kathmandu valley, the metropolitan traffic police division has declared 26 kilometer long ring road a no parking zone from Sunday.
On Sunday, police took action against the owner of the 86 vehicles parked in the different places of ring road including Tilganga, Chabahil, Balkhu, Sanepa, Kusunti and Sinamangal. The vehicles that were parked in different prohibited areas and hindered vehicular movement were fined under the existing law.
Disrict Superintendent of Police Basanta Panta of Metropolitan Traffic Police Division said stringent actions will be taken if people remain adamant about the illegal parking. If the situation does not improve, we will be forced to resort to stricker measures to implement the rule he further add.
In a bid to ensure effective implementation of the new measures, Metropolitan Traffic Police Division has deployed around 50 personnel from the traffic & civil police to monitor the ring road area round the clock. According to Panta, the no parking mission directed by the metropolitan police commisioners office on its first stage would focus on clearing the parked vehicles from the ring road and the foot paths on either side of it. We will be informing the public about the new rule said Panta. For vehicles entering the valley from other districts, we will disseminate the message at the Thankot and Nagdhunga check points.
On its second stage, the drive will clear the green belt circle round the ring road. According to Panta , 25 meters on either side of the road will be cleared and declared a ‘non- parking area.’ Action wil be taken against the vehicles parked in places except the ones designated for parking said Basanta Panta, the District Superintendent of Police.

Limnology

Limnology is the word derived from the Greek word ‘Lime’ which means lake and the logos means study. Thus Limnology is the study of fresh water bodies. It studies the physical, chemical & biological properties of fresh water ecosystem. It includes the study of (natural as well as artificial) lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, springs, wetlands, groundwater, etc.
In other words, Limnology is the science of studies of the freshwater and its organisms as well as its physical & chemical properties.
Types of ecosystem:
 Terresterial ecosystem
 Aquatic ecosystem
Terresterial ecosystem are of three types as:
 Grassland ecosystem
 Forest ecosystem
 Desert ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem are of two types:
 Fresh water ecosystem (0.5 gm of salt per litre)
 Marine ecosystem (30.37 gm of salt per litre)
Fresh water ecosystem are of two types:
 Lotic i.e. running water ecosystem like river, stream, etc.
 Lentic i.e. Stagnant water ecosystem like lake, pond, etc.
Scope of Limnology
As we know water resource are very useful for human beings for their daily life activities. More over the water is used in agriculture, industrial purposes, household purposes, irrigation, recreational activities as well as environmental purposes. The water we require is fresh water and is available only 25% whereas marine water is about 97.5% on the earth. However, fresh water is a renewable source of water yet the world’s supply of fresh water is constantly decreasing because demand exceeds supply in many parts of the world population at an unbelievable rate. Thus, many more countries are expected to experience the lack of fresh water in the near future.
Unfortunately, our rivers , ponds, lakes, streams have been a dumping site of the solid & liquid waste (sewage) which has led great impact to the aquatic organisms, aesthetic & recreational values of the aquatic ecosystem. Thus, the scope of limnology is very essential for human walfare for the environmental conservation of the aquatic organisms habitats and evaluating the water quality for not being to degrade the quality of it. It also describes the type of lakes and ponds according to the chemical & biological parameter analysis. For e.g. high BOD (10 mg/l) & COD (100mg/l) & Phosphorous>0.1 mg/l together with the dominance of BGA (10 genera) suggests lake or ponds as mesotrophic for e.g. Rani Pokhari. Likewise high ammonia (18.7 mg/l ) and Phosphorous(2.6 mg/l) suggests as eutrophic lake e.g. Kamal pokhari and fair oxygen content (DO>6mg/l) , BOD and COD < 12mg/l , low nutrients Nitrogen & Phosphorous <(0.1mg/l) suggests the lake or pond as Oligotrophic lake for e.g. Taudaha.
Types of fresh water
Less than one percentage of salt concentration in water bodies are called fresh water. There are three types of freshwater as:
 Ponds and lakes
 Streams and rivers
 Wetlands
Ponds and lakes
Ponds are smaller in size than lake and are not so deep, lakes are larger in size than a pond and are generally deep. According to the depth & its location lakes are of following types:
 Glacial lake-This is the lake situated at the high altitude formed by the melting of ice.
 Tectonic lake- This is the lake formed due to the upliftment of tectonic plate. Found in mid hills of Nepal. Phewa, Begnas Syapru Tal, etc. are the examples of Tectonic lake.
 Oxbow lake- Lakes found in the Terai region. Bish Hazari Tal, Gosain kunda,Ghoda ghodi Tal etc. are some examples of Oxbow lake. During the downstream flow of river the river forms turn which form a lake named Oxbow.
 Crater lake- Crater formed on the top volcanic mountain peak after volcano get dominant & precipitation get collected in this area forming a lake called Crater lake. For e.g. Mt. Mazma oregon of USA.
 Artificial lake-Lake created by the human beings due to excavation of a site or dammaging stream or river for hydropower processes. For e.g. Rani Pokhari, Strip Pits, Querry Pits, borrow Pits & reservoir deep.
Stream & Rivers
They, change their routes from head water to the mouth deep. Diversity high in middle part of river due to high DO value. The upper part water is cooler and high amount of oxygen. So, trout, salmon, etc. are present. The middle part of river/ stream has a rapid increasing in width along with its species diversity. Mostly aquatic green plants and algae are found.
At the down part of river becomes muddy, oxygen level decreases light penetration is lower than upstream, low fish and less diversity occurs because of lower oxygen level. Species like Catfish, Crab, etc are only found.
Wetlands
Wetlands is the marsh, swampy, fenny & the boggy area with richest diversity among all the ecosystem. Macrophytes like Nelumbo,Chestnut, Potamogetom, Eichhornia, etc were found.
Physico-Chemical & Biological water Quality index
Water Quality Index-It is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water that refers to the stability of the water to sustain living organisms & other uses such as drinking, bathing, irrigation, for industrial purposes, and also to know the health of the aquatic ecosystems. The water quality index measures dissolved oxygen, pH, Conductivity, total nitrogen & total phosphorous content. The WQI is determined by comparing the water samples according to the set of standards such as APHA standards and European Union drinking water standards, etc. It is an indicator of eutrophication, nutrient pollution, acidification & salinization, etc. Factors leading to the deterioration of water quality are due to domestic water waste, solid waste, industrial waste, man made natural disaster, increase in the use of agro chemicals and change in land use pattern. Some of the water quality index are as follows:
 Dissolved Oxygen(DO)- It is a measure of free oxygen dissolved in water. It is essential for the metabolism of all aerobic aquatic organisms. Reduced levels of DO shows harmful to aquatic lifes & even for the plants too and fish. Therefore, DO in water bodies must be 6.0 mg/l.
 Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD)- It is the amount of oxygen utilized by micro-organisms in decomposing the organic matter. The complete degradation of organic matter may take as long as 20 to 30 days. In practice BOD test has been developed for five days at 20̊c.
 Chlorine-It occurs naturally in all typpes of water. In natural fresh water its concentration is quite low. Chlorine in water is the discharge of domestic wastes or sewage or from industrial effluents. It serves as an indicator of pollution by sewage. For drinking purposes chloride should be 250 mg/l.
 Turbidity-The turbidity in water bodies is caused by the amount of suspended particles of clay, silt, organic matter, etc. Turbidity affect the penetration of light in the water bodies & affects the photosynthesis process as well as for drinking, bathing & for induatrial purposes. For drinking water purposes, the suspended particles must be zero.
 pH- It is the measure of the amount of acidity or alkalinity of a water body. It can affect aquatic organisms by imparting/harming in the process of respiration, growth & development of fish. European Union of drinking water directive parameters showed that the pH of water must be 6.5-8.5.
 Bacteriological quality of drinking water-Organisms such as Escherchia coli must not be detectable in any 100ml sample in the water intended for drinking of an treated water entering the distribution system. Otherwise, it may lead to water borne diseases.
 Conductivity-It is a measure of the ability of water to carry an electric current which depends on the presence of ions. Increase in conductivity leads to change or reduce in aquatic bio-diversity. European Union of drinking water directive parameters shows that the conductivity of water must be 400 micro siemens per centimeter.
 Total Nitrogen & Total Phosphorous- These are the naturally occuring elements essential for all living organisms. Increase in nitrogen or phosphorous in natural water as a result of human activities in the drainage basin e.g. from the agricultural runoff from manure and chemical fertilizers & from municipal and industrial waste discharge, can overstimulate the plant growth and choke off oxygen supplies. If the concentration of total phosphorous in greater than 0.3 mg/l, it can cause algal blooms in lake and ponds. European Union for drinking water directive parameters shows that the total nitrogen should be nitrates 50mg/l and nitrites 0.1 mg/l in aggregate.
The health and the well being of the human being and the ecosystem depend heavily on the quality of the available water resources. Water is necessary for all the biological life. It also supports global food production by providing the fundamental resource upon with agriculture livestock production, fisheries and aquaculture production. Water is crucial for industrial activity & municipal services.
Water quality is at risk from industrial effluents, fertilizer runoff from agricultural land and poorly treated minicipal waste. Most of the nitrogen & phosphorous released into the environment comes from these three sources. Phosphorous & nitrogen are the important nutrients in fresh water but higher concentration of nitrogen & phosporous leads to the eutrophication ( causing algal blooms in water bodies) as a result it causes decrease in oxygen concentration in the water bodies for the aquatic life.
In particular mayflies, stoneflies, caddisfly larvae, trout, salmon, etc. are sensitive to water quality degradation. When water quality become worse the populations of these invertebrates & vertebrates aquatic animals can be expected to decrease or disappear from the water bodies. So, that special attention should be given to the percentage of Mayflies, Stoneflies & Caddisflies in freshwater invertebrate samples from aquatic ecosystem. This percentage is referred to as ‘EPT’an acronym referring to the taxonomic orders Ephemeroptera(mayflies), Plecoptera(Stoneflies) & Tricoptera(Caddisflies).
There is a vital connection between water quality & health. The rivers are the main places for the disposal of urban solid waste, domestic effluents & industrial effluents which are responsible for polluting the water and causing water borne diseases. Poor sanitation/cleanliness, poor water quality has brought about the most prevalent water borne diseases in Nepal such as Diarrhoea(Bacillus coli), Cholera(Vibrio cholerae), Typhoid(Salmonella typhi), etc. by consuming contaminated water & contaminated food as well.
Recommendations
 Effects for managing waste disposal, maintaining drinking water & sewage pipelines, controling open defecation are urgently required.
 Conduct effective awarness programmes for water quality to be needed and must amend & execute water act, rules & regulations if necessary for maintaining the water quality condition.
 Carryout research on water source protection and management.
 Adopt and enforce industrial effluents standards.
Different Zones of Lakes & ponds
There are three zones of lakes on the basis of depth and the penetration of the light as follows:
 Littoral Zone
 Limnetic Zone
 Profundal Zone

Littoral Zone-It is the shalllow zone at the surface of the lakes or ponds. It is the warmest zone wit hdiverse species, several species of algae, rooted & floating aquatic plants, snouts, insects, fishes & amphibians were found and this region has maximum light penetration.
Limnetic Zone-It is the middle part of the lake & ponds where there is warm with light penetration. At this zone maximum species of phytoplanktons & zooplanktons are found.
Profundal Zone-It is the lower part of the lakes or ponds where there is no light penetration due to which this region is colder & darker. Founa such as a toxic organisms are found such as tubificids which feed on dead aquatic organisms or planktons fallen from limnetic zone.
Variation of Temperature in Lakes & Ponds
Lakes & ponds can be divided into two parts from the temperature point of view. The upper part which is below the surface and get direct sunlight is called Epilimniom which has higher teamperature. And the bottom level which receive no sun rays is called Hypolimnion.In between these two region there is one narrow zone called Thermocline where water temperature changes rapidly. During summer temperature can range from cold to 22̊c from bottom to surface. During winter temperature at the bottom is 4̊c and 0̊c i.e.ice form at the surface.

During Spring the fall season there is a mixing of top & bottom water due to the wind which results uniform temperature from top to the bottom around 4̊c. Oxygen is uniform in some temperature. This mixing results uniform oxygen.
Freshwater Bio-Diversity
Some of the freshwater biodiversity are described as follows:
 Macrophytes-These are aquatic plants growing in or near the shore of water bodies. Macrophytes are beneficial to lakes because they provide cover for fish & substrate for aquatic invertebrates. They also produce oxygen which assists well functioning of the lake as a result diversity in organisms increase which may result & provide food for some fish & other aquatic animals. Thus, lack of macrophytes in water body is expected to reduce in population of Sport & Forage fish and waterfowl. In addition, the absence of macrophytes may also indicate water quality problems as a result of excess turbidity, herbicides or salinization and may indicate water quality is good if the analysis of physical, chemical & the biological parameters of the water samples are analysed and found nothing in the water sample. However, an overabundance of macrophytes can also result due to high nutrients from various sources like agriculture runoff, detergents that washed out in the lakes and that may interface lake functioning preventing recreational activities such as swimming, fishin & bathing. Thus, Macrophytes are the excellent indicators of watershed health because they provide information about nutrients, light condition at the bottom of the water bodies (limnetic & profundal zone), toxic contaminants, turbidity, water level change & salt concentration. Macrophytes found on the water bodies are:-Submerged-Hydrilla, Potamogetom, Utricularia, Emergent-Typha, Scirpus, Nelumbo, Floating-Lemma, Wolfia, Water Hyacinth(Eichhornia Crassipes).
 Periphytes or Aufwuchs- These are the organisms both plant & animals attached to the stems and leaves of rooted plants or other surfaces such as rocks projecting above the bottom for example:- Pond snails, Nymphs of Dragonflies, Mayflies, Stoneflies, Flatworms, etc. These are the producers and secondary consumers. These are also sensitive indicators of environmental change in Lotic water because they are attached to the substrate, rocks,l etc. For example, diatoms in particular are useful indiactors of biological condition of water & they are Ubiquitous & found in all lotic systems and represent good water quality.
 Benthic Organisms- Aquatic invertebrates that live in the bottom parts of the water are called Benthic micro invertebrates or benthos (benthic-bottom, macro-large, invertebrate-without backbone) and make good indicators of water bodies health because they live in the bottom of the water for all or most of their life, stay in areas suitable for their survival, are easy to collect and are helpful to know the water quality according to the types of macroinvertebrates found on water bodies. For example, Stoneflies, Dragonflies are considered as clean water benthos whereas presence of tubificids indicates the water bodies as polluted due to excess organic wastes.


 Planktons
The word plankton comes from the Greek word ‘planktons’ which means ‘drifting’. Planktons are microscopic organisms that float freely in water bodies. Plankton is made up of tiny plants(phytoplankton) and tiny animals(zooplankton) and bacteria.
 Phytoplanktons-They are primary producers(autotrophs). They are the base of the food chain. They use Chrolophyll to convert energy(sunlight), inorganic chemicals(nitrogen & dissolved carbondioxide) to carbohydrates or chemical energy. Phytoplanktons are the food for the zooplankton and fish and other secondary consumers. For e.g. diatoms, Cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates, spirogyra, euglena, etc.
 Zooplanktons-These are microscopic animals that eat other planktons. Abundance of zooplankton will help to decline the phytoplanktons populations by preying on them and increases predation by juvenile fishes reduces the zooplankton populations. Some zooplanktons are larval or immature stages of larger including molluscs like (Snails & Squad), crustaceans(daphnia, Krill,copepods), fish, etc.
 Fish-Fish are useful indicators to assess the water quality either it is clean or polluted. Fish living in water bodies is not enough for the understanding of the people but also need to know what kinds of fish are there how many and their indicators of watershed condition because they live in water all of their life and indicate water resources quality providing information about the physical, chemical and biological condition of water bodies. For example, trout and salmon represents in water bodies indicate good water quality whereas catfish & carpfish represents water is being dirty or becoming polluted.

Impressing the boss across the table during Interview

Interview can be nerve taking racking experience, even for the most seasoned interviewee with plenty to worry about, it can sometimes seem an additional stress to then consider the impression we are leaving behind. But, it doesn’t have to be that difficult and with some prior preparation you can relax during your interview, with the knowledge of that you are creating the right impression.
Don’t be late
Double check your interview details. Prior to your interview details you know the location and if necessary drive there before hand so you know exactly where it is how to get there and how long it takes this will help alleviate stress on the interview day.
If you need parking check beforehand the parking situation, you may need to reserve a park or you may need to find public parking close by so investigate your interview isn’t during peak hour there can always be traffic or public transport delays so allow extra time you can always wait in the car or in a nearby café.
Research the company and Role
Try to obtain a job description prior to the interview.
Consider possible questions that you might be asked and think about how you might answer them.
What do you know about the company? Do some research, most of the company have their details on their website if you are applying via an agency ask them.
Prepare some questions that you would like to ask about the role, what it is like to work for the company and the company culture.
Look the part
If you are applying for the management post then you need to look like a manager. Equally if you are applying for a creative role in an organization that fosters free thinking rather than suits, dress as they would. If you’re not sure than dress professionally.
Don’t forget the smaller details about the shiny shoes, clean nails and a neat a haircut show that you want to make a good impression.

Be prepared
Have your CV with you and any relevant details such as a portfolio. If you are relying on technology have a backup.
Body language during interview
Try to be aware of how you are sitting and any distracting behavior, such as playing with paper, this can create the impression that you are nervous. Offer a firm hand shake and hold confident eye contact during the interview. A smile can help alleviate your nerves and creates a friendly and open atmosphere.
Be confident and positive
It’s very difficult to be confident at an interview and you also don’t want to appear overly confident that you have the job. But, be positive and confident and convince yourself that you do have the skills and ability to do the job. If you can convince yourself then it will be much easier to convince someone else.
Better try to find the better positive responsibilities to all questions for example- If there is a career gap in your CV explains what the skills you might have gained during this period.
If you can avoid negative responses your interviewer doesn’t want to hear about all the problems you had in your last role and it might create the impression that you’re difficult to work with.
It’s important that you approach your interview with confidence. With a little preparation you can minimize any potential hiccups an the day that might cause stress and anticipating possible questions can give you the edge on having well thought out responses. Show an interest in the company that you want to work for and ask questions that demonstrate your knowledge and preparation. Approach your interview relaxed and don’t forget to smile.

Habitat Damage

The rapid increase in the population leads to a damage for more houses and industries and the need for food requires more acres of cropland to be cultivated. Finding land for the uses often means replacement of wild habitats with human made environments.
The agricultural land covers about 9 million square miles of the world’s land surface which represents nearly all of the land on our planet that is easily cultivated, because ice, mountains and deserts account for the large percentage of the earth’s surface. Much of the farmland currently under cultivation is being damaged as farmers try to squeeze more of the crops out of the soil. Which means that the soil may not be fertile in future, creating the need for new farmland? This is likely to put increasing pressure on the world’s remaining wilderness.
Many other types of development demand land. Road, industry, mines and dams all need land and their construction often means disappearance of some habitats and the disruption of the others.
Although population growth in the richer countries of the world is low but the people in these countries use far more resources than those in the poor countries. Extracting resources damages the habitats. The copper taken from this mine in Utah will go to make wire or pipes, but the mountain will never be the same. Vast amounts of rocks are destroyed, disrupting the area’s wildlife.
Overgrazing of cattle in the dry grassland south of the Sahara Desert is habitat damage. Plants help to recycle rainfall by giving off moisture from their leaves. When the vegetation is stripped away, the region becomes drier. Millions of people are affected by drought in this part of Africa and wild animals like Cheetah, Gazelles and Antelope which used to roam here have lost their habitat due to the rapid population explosion in the world.

Environmental Geology

Landform and its development
Landform is that piece of land which has more or less similar morphological features & are formed by certain geological process like plain, pleatues, valley, basin, etc. All these processes which can shape different shapes of landform is termed as geological process. Erosion, transportation, mass movement, etc. effect landform development. Earthquake, volcano, tectonism are the endogenous process that cause landform development.
Types of landform
 Hill/Mountain
Difference in elevation i.e. about 600-700m from sea level is hill and above 700m is classified as mountain. Peak is the single mountain.They’re higher elevated landforms than its surroundings. Hill & mountain is formed in range whereas peak is single one.
 Valley/basin
It is the negative landform which is depressed than its surroundings. Valley is that part of landform whose one part is depressed but there are elevated part. Basin is that part of landform whose all parts are elevated.
 Pleatau
They are the table like landforms which rises adoptly from its surrounding and have broad flat top. In Nepal there is Piedomont pleatau at the foot of mountain.

 Continental Shield
It is the background landforms of all types which has general slope and composed of oldest rock. It is background for all types of land forms. It cover up just like designing in cloth.
 Plain
It is that part of landforms which is the flat area.
Factors controlling landform development
The Geomorphic process of the development of landform is divided into two parts:
 Endogenous- Diastrophism or tectonism, volcanism, etc.
 Exogenous- Degradation & Aggradation.
Degradation is the lowering of the land surface by the geomorphic agents like wind, glacier, water, etc.
In Volcanism, elevated part id formed more than depressed part.
In tectonism, new landform is developed due to the tectonic movement of the internal materials of the earth.
 Climate- It is that part of the factors which defines or accelerates the rate of weathering & erosion. It converts steep slope into gentle slope. The south facing slope is gentle. The south facing slope gets more sun rays & precipitation than north facing slope & chemical weathering enhances. The civilization is also affected by climate.
 Gradient(Slope)- It is the ratio of the vertical distance to the horizontal distance. More the area of gradation faster is the erosion & slow weathering. Assent velocity increases i.e. KE increases then action of agent will be high & erosion faster up.
 Parent material- If soft & loose soil is distributed new landform is developed.
Air as the agent for morphological process
The differential heating of sunrays in different part cause wind.
Action performed by air
 Erosion – Deflation, Abrassion, Attrision.
 Transportation- Traction, Suspension, Saltation.
 Deposition.
Erosion
The process of wearing and tearing out of the surface materials by wind is called Erosion.
 Deflation- It is the process of lifting up of the loose particles by wind. Deflation can form different kinds of landforms as
 Desert pavement- When all the fine particles are deflated out, there will be coarse particles left and seems like paved on the ground known as desert pavement.
 Hamada- Hard rocky matter left behind by the action of deflation.
 Deflation blows/hollows or Oasis- Depression or negative landforms that are created by deflation action are confined or concentrated in a particular place. When depression are filled with water then it is called Oasis.
 Abrassion- It is the action of rubbing or stretching

Ecology

• What is Ecology ?
Ecology (derived from greek word oikos , house or place to live and logos , study of) is the study of how living organisms interact with one another and with non- living environment .In fact it is the study of connections in nature.
• What are Organisms ?
An organism is any form of life .The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms . Organisms may conisists of single cell or many cells .On the basis of their cell structure, organisms can be classified as their eukaryotic an prokaryotic.
Each cell of eukaryotic organism
 Is surrounded by a membre
 Has a distinct nucleus ( a membrane- bounded structure containing genetice material in the form of DNA).
 Has several other internal parts called organelles. All organelles except bacteria are eukaryotic.
• What is Population?
A population consists of a group of interacting individuals of the same species that occupy a specific area at the same time.
• What are communities, Ecosystem and the Biosphere?
Populations of the different species occupying a particular place make up a community or biological community.
An ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and with their non-living environment of matter and energy.
• What are species?
Organisms that resemble with one another in appearance, behaviour, chemistry and generic make up.
Asexual reproduction is common in species such as bacteria with only one cell, which divides to produce two identical cells that are clones or replicas of the original cell.
Sexual reproduction occurs in organisms that produce offsprings by combining sex cells or gametes( ovum & sperm) from both parents. This produce offsprings that have combinations of genetic traits from each parents. Sexual reproduction usually gives the species the greater chance of survival under changing environmental conditions than the genetic clones produced by asexual reproduction.
• Biosphere
All of the earth’s ecosystems together make up what we call the biosphere.
Or
The portion of the planet occupied by life where biotic organisms exists and interact with their non-living environment is called biosphere. It includes hydrosphere & the Parts of the lower atmosphere and upper Lithosphere.
The goal of ecology is to understand the interaction in this thin layer, life supporting global skin or membrane of air, water, soil and organisms.
• What sustains life on Earth?
Life on earth depends on three inter-connected factors:
 The one way flow of high quality energy from the sun through materials and living things in their feeding interactions, into the environment as low quality energy (mainly heat dispersed into air or water molecules at low temperature and eventually back into space as heat.
 The cycling of matter (atoms, ions or the molecules needed to survive the living organisms) through parts of the biosphere.The earth is closed to significant inputs of the matter from space. Thus, essentially all the nutrients used by organisms are again and again for life to continue.

Population Explosion

The world’s human population is growing rapidly. Every day about 230,000 babies were born, adding to more than six billion of us who already inhabit the planet. Every second the population of world is growing.
Children are important for the future but the growing population can damage the habitats. More and more of the underdeveloped areas were being cleared to provide people with food, resources and places to live in.
The advances in the medicine in the last decades have become the reason for the population explosion due to which people live longer.
Yet in the poor countries proper medical care is not always available and many infants die. Families on these areas rely on having many members to bring in money or to farm the land, because the survival is uncertain, women have more children in case some die.
In such a case families get poorer as they struggle to feed all their children, as the poverty grows they are forced to clear wild habitats in order to farm.
The expansion of urban areas has been particularly rapid in poor countries as people move from countryside to the city to look for the work. Often they cannot find jobs and end up in poverty-stricken shanty towns which grow up around the edges of the cities.
In this way urban areas spread into the wild land causing the rapid explosion of the population in the world. So, it is to be controlled in time to save the Earth from this rapid fire, which may destroy this world if this trend continues for a centuries.

Atmosphere

Atmosphere

Composition of Atmosphere

For our clear understanding and proper studies the components of the atmosphere can be broadly be divided into three categories on the basis of the volume content as: Major, Minor and Trace.

Category	Gas Name	Chemical Formula	Percent Volume
Major	Nitrogen	N₂	78.08%
	Oxygen	O₂	20.95%
	* Water vapour	H₂O	0-4%
Minor	Argon	Ar	0.93%
	*Carbon dioxide	CO₂	0.036%
Trace	Neon	Ne	0.0018%
	Helium	He	0.0005%
	*Methane	CH₄	0.00017%
	Krypton	Kr	0.000114%
	*Nitrous oxide	N₂O	0.00003%
	Hydrogen	H₂	0.00005%
	Xenon	Xe	0.00009%
	Sulphur Dioxide	S₂O	*0.000000
	Ozone	O₃	0.000004%
	Ammonia	NH₃	*0.000000

From the above data we come to know that two major gases of the atmosphere Nitrogen and Oxygen only constitute to about more than 99% of the total gases in the atmosphere. Remaining other minor and the trace amount of gases constitute to about 1%of total gsases. The other gases like water vapour, carbondioxide,etc are at the state of its changing volume on the atmosphere. And the ramaining other gases except Argon are only at the trace amount in the atmosphere.

Layer of Atmosphere	Altitude range (in Km.)	Temperature range(in °C)	Important chemicals In symbols
Troposphere	0-11	15-56	N₂,O₂,CO₂,H₂O
Stratosphere	11-50	-56to -2	O₃
Mesosphere	50-85	-2 to-92	O₂⁺,No⁺
Thermosphere	85-500	-92 to 1200	O₂⁺,O⁺,No⁺

Troposphere: It contains 70% of the total mass of the atmosphere. The upper limit of the Troposphere may vary by a km or more depending upon the factors such as Temperature and nature of the terresterial surfaces. Density decreases exponentially with increasing in altitude. It is particularly due to general circulation of the Earth. In Troposphere temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The layer that differentiate the Troposphere and Stratosphere is known as Tropopause which has -56°C of temperature in average.

Stratosphere: In the Stratosphere temperature increases with increases in the altitude with a maximum of -2°C at the upper limit of the atmosphere. Ozone in this region absorb ultraviolet rays and raises the temperature causing the positive lapse rate. It plays an important role in the Stratosphere in blocking the ultraviolet rays to come down to the Earth surface so, it acts as a protective shield for the life on Earth from the injurious effect of the suns ultraviolet rays. And at the same time it supplies heat source for partitioning the atmosphere into quiescent stratosphere and turbulent strarosphere.

In Stratosphere, there is cycle of formation of Ozone & destruction of ozone simultaneously in natural condition but after releasing ozone destructing pollutants from the atmosphere by anthropogenic activities the natural cycle can be disturbed. So, the amount of formation of ozone is lessler than destruction of Ozone.

Mesosphere: In mesosphere, temperature falls alternatively. It is due to low level of ultraviolet rays absorbing chemical species. The temperature may vary from -2°C to -92°C.

Thermosphere: The temperature raise once again and reaches upto 1200°C. Atmospheric gases particularly oxygen and nitric oxide split into atoms and also undergo ionization after absorption of the solar radiation.