There is a debate raging over the government's reported plan to install a diesel plant, considering billions of rupees needed to import fuel to run the facility.
Advocates of hydropower say, at a time when the country's potential of generating tens of thousands megawatt of clean energy remains untapped, setting up plants of the said up to 200 MW capacity would make the country further dependent on fossil fuel, which the nation produces none. A hefty chunk of Nepal's foreign reserves is already spent on petroleum import. But the government has stuck to the plan saying that developing a hydroelectricity project big enough to address the huge supply of deficit will take years and that thermal plant, which is said to take a maximum of six months to build, is the only ready solution.
In such a fix, Blester, a Japanese invention, could help solve simultaneously two problems the country is facing- minimizing the fuel crisis and recycling plastic materials, systematic disposal of which has been a huge problem.
Eco-party, a group of Japanese experts along with some Nepalis, has been working as a part of its project, School Oil Field Caravan, to create awareness on plastic waste that could produce valuable oil-diesel, petroleum and kerosene, among others, since May 2010 in several parts of the country.
According to Uwai Masanori, director of Eco-party, a machine dubbed Blester recycles plastic waste to valuable oil. Three types of plastics- polypropylene, polyethylene and polystyrene could be recycled to produce oil which can be used as an alternate fuel for power generators, boilers and vehicles.
"Hydrocarbon oil-made up of carbon and hydrogen- is the raw material used to manufacture plastics. The Blest machine converts plastics to the original oil form," he said.
A waste plastic oil reproduction machine can deliver 700 to 800 ml oil from a kilogram of plastic waste by heating it for around three hours. The machine consists of a reactor tank that stores plastic and heats it up to 420- 450 degree Celsius before a fermentation process. An oil container or glass tank is installed in the machine to collect the oil, along with a CPU monitor that controls the overall system. The machine for recycling plastic waste produced in a municipality costs around Rs. 10 million.
According to the statistics with Japan Plastics Industry Federation, 70 percent of plastic products in the world can be used to produce oil.
"We have demonstrated how the machine functions to former Prime Minister Jhala Nath Khanal. He had expressed commitment to promote this technology in the country," said Amita Rajbhandari, a member of the Eco-party. Since the inception, the caravan that started from Kolkata in India has toured around 1,553 km through Lumbini up to Pokhara. "As the name suggests, we are demonstrating the machine at schools, trying to send the message across that used up plastic is a resource, not waste," Rajbhandari said. "The aim of promoting this machine is to help the country address the power crisis by means of alternative fuel.
According to Rabin Man Shrestha, chief of the Environment Management Division at the Kathmandu Metropolitan City, of the total 360 tones of waste collected in the Valley each day around 10 percent i.e. 36 tones is plastics.
Wednesday, January 4, 2012
Sunday, July 17, 2011
CLIMATE AND RAINFALL IN NEPAL
Nepal has very pleasant climate. Nepal has four distinct seasons. Spring, from March to May is warm and dusty with rain showers. Summer, from June to August, is the monsoon season when the hills turn lush and green. Autumn, from September to November, is cool with clear skies, and is the most popular trekking season. In winter from December to February, it is cold at night and can be foggy in the early morning but afternoons are usually clear and pleasant, though there is occasional snow in the mountains.
Weather climate condition in Nepal vary from region to region. Summer and late spring temperatures range from more than 40 Degrees Celsius in the Tera i to about 28 Degrees Celsius in the hilly region of the country. In winter, average maximum and minimum temperatures in the Terai range from a mild 23 Degrees Celsius to a brisk 7 Degrees Celsius while the central valleys experience a chilly 12 Degrees Celsius maximum temperature and a minimum temperature often falling below freezing point.
Much colder temperatures prevail at higher elevations. The Kathmandu Valley situated at an altitude of 1310m, has a seasonable but equable climate with average summer and winter temperatures of 27 Degrees Celsius to 19 Degrees Celsius and 20 Degrees Celsius to 2 Degrees Celsius respectively. The annual rainfall in Kathmandu generally exceeds 1300mm. The mean annual precipitation ranges from more than 6000mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna range in central Nepal to less than the 250mm in the north central portion near the Tibetan plateau. Amounts varying between 1500 and 2500mm predominate over most of the country. On an average, about 80% of the precipitation is confined to the monsoon period (June-September).
Friday, July 15, 2011
Nepal's Biodiversity at a Glance
The tallest mountain range in the world, the Himalaya is also a youngest and is still growing. This range deprives the great Tibetan plateau from monsoon and forms the rain shadow. And on the other hand it also blocks the cold northern winds reaching the Indian plains during winter. Because of these phenomena the southern parts of the Himalaya is lush green, productive and prone to erosion due to full brunt of monsoon, whereas the northern Tibetan plateau remained arid region. This uniqueness in the climate found due to altitudinal variation allows Nepal to experience from Tropical to Alpine bio-climate, despite our geographical position. Hence Nepal boasts from the large terrestrial rhinos and elephants of the tropics to the snow leopard and Tibetan Argali of alpine region.
Nepal has been ranked top ten highest flowering plant diversity out of 25 Asian countries. On a world scale Nepal lies 27th in the richness scale on floral diversity. With just over 0.1% of the earths land surface occurring in Nepal, it supports globally known 4.2% butterflies (635 spp), 2.2 % of fresh water fish species (185 spp), 1.1 % amphibians (43 spp.), 1.5% reptile (100 spp.), 8.5% of birds (860 spp.) and 4.2% mammals (181 spp).
Distribution of butterflies, Freshwater fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals Group Name #1 Terai and Siwaliks Midhills Highlands
Spp. % Spp. % Spp. %
Butterflies 635 325 51.2 557 87.7 82 12.9
Freshwater fishes 185 154 83.2 76 41.1 6 3.2
Amphibians 43 22 51.2 29 67.4 9 20.9
Reptiles 100 68 68 56 56 13 13
Freshwater fishes 844 648 *77.8 691 *83 413 *49.7
Mammals 181 91 *51.1 110 *61.5 80 *45.0
Total* 1988 1308 *66.3 1519 *77.0 603 *30.5
Thursday, July 14, 2011
Earthquake: Ist Danger Zone
As I watch the horrific aftermath of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami, and the scale of the rescue effort needed, I cant believe the turmoil that has struck Japan. It is so alarming and distressing to see a developed country that is prepared for the danger of an earthquake be so totally overwhelmed. I am also becoming more and more alarmed of the scale of the disaster if an earthquake were to strike Kathmandu. I met a seismologist who was working here last year and he told me some extremely frightening statistics, my girlfriend has actually also been working on an article about it for the last few weeks. The verdict is that when an earthquake strikes here it may well be more lethal than Haiti.
Geo Hazards International rate Kathmandu as the number one danger spot world-wide. There are several reasons for this... all of them very very alarming.
It is one of the most densely populated cities in the world. Mazes of medium-high rise masonry building, virtually none of which are EQ proofed, tiny streets, no green spaces, and no-where to run. The country has been at war up until a few years ago and any regulation that was in place has since been ignored. There was a huge influx of migration into the city during the war and many poorly built buildings went up. The entire valley floor is densely packed with poorly built 3-4 story buildings.
The entire city is built on a sandy former-lake bed which acts like an amplifier for any shaking in the region.
There is only one airport, with one runway. But the route into and out of the airport will likely be blocked. And in fact it is believed to be in the worst area in the city for damage.
There are only 3 roads into and out of Kathmandu. All of them are tiny and cross huge mountains. All 3 are certain to be entirely cut-off due to landslides. Perhaps for many weeks. Considering there are very regularly landslides simply after heavy rainfall i don"t find this very surprising. This means that the city is entirely cut off from the world, when the earthquake does hit there may be no way of getting into or out of the city.
As one of the worlds poorest countries it has very few resources. There are 8 working fire-engines in a city of 2.5 million people. The mobile phone building headquarters are not even proofed. Even right now before the earthquake it has only 10 hrs of electricity per day.
A very large earthquake is overdue. The last one was in 1934. They are expected roughly every 75 years. It would likely be a 8+ scale earthquake. The area to the west of Kathmandu is even more overdue.
It is inspiring to see the outpouring of funds and help going to Japan and Haiti and New Zealand. Japan certainly needs all the help it can get right now, but i cant help thinking that funds may be better spent on prevention in areas where lack of money is the number one issue. The frustrating thing is that most of this destruction can be entirely avoided. Experts had been screaming about the potential disaster waiting to happen before Haiti and there was very little done except after the event. Experts are now screaming about the dangers in Kathmandu, Istanbul, Tehran and elsewhere but we don"t hear about these until after they happen. And when it does happen to Kathmandu no amount of funds can help because of the problem of getting into the city. I cant help thinking that the media is failing us. As soon as it happens they are all over it with TV cameras and helicopters but right now many people in Kathmandu i have spoken to seem to be completely unaware of the dangers. Some are not even aware they are in an earthquake zone.
Saturday, July 2, 2011
Climate Change
Climate change is a long-term shift in the statistic of the weather. For example, it could show up as a change in climate normal (Expected average values for temperature and Precipitation) for a given place and time of year, from one decade to the next. We know that the global climate is currently changing. The last decade of the 20th Century and the beginning of the 21st have been the warmest period in the entire global instrumental temperature record, starting in the mid-19th century.
Why is the Climate Changing?
Natural variability
Climate change is a normal part of the Earth’s natural variability, which is related to interactions among the atmosphere, ocean, and land, as well as changes in the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth. The geologic record includes significant evidence for large-scale climate changes in Earth’s past. An example of this variability is shown in the plot below of temperature data for the last 420,000 years, derived from an Antarctic ice core.
An example of this variability is shown in the plot below of temperature data for the last 420,000 years, derived from an Antarctic ice core.
Human-induced change
Greenhouse Gases
Certain naturally occurring gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O), trap heat in the atmosphere causing a greenhouse effect. Burning of fossil fuels, like oil, coal, and natural gas is adding CO2 to the atmosphere. The current level is the highest in the past 650,000 years. The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes, “That most of the observed increase in the globally averaged
Temperature since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations.”
What is being done to Study the Effects of Climate Change?
There are numerous potential effects of climate change. Extensive research is being done around the world – a good deal within NOAA – to determine the extent to which climate change is occurring, how much of it is being caused by anthropogenic (manmade) forces, and its potential impacts. In some of these areas, there is not a consensus among scientists and in fact, there are often conflicting points-of-view and studies. However, with further research, no doubt many questions regarding impacts will be resolved in the future. Potential impacts most studied by researchers include the effects on sea level, drought, local weather, and hurricanes. Most of our current knowledge of global change comes from General Circulation Models (GCMs).
At present, GCMs have the ability to provide us with a mean annual temperature for the planet that is reliable. Regional and local temperature and precipitation information from GCMs is, at present, unreliable. Much of the global change research effort is focused on improving these models.
Why is the Climate Changing?
Natural variability
Climate change is a normal part of the Earth’s natural variability, which is related to interactions among the atmosphere, ocean, and land, as well as changes in the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth. The geologic record includes significant evidence for large-scale climate changes in Earth’s past. An example of this variability is shown in the plot below of temperature data for the last 420,000 years, derived from an Antarctic ice core.
An example of this variability is shown in the plot below of temperature data for the last 420,000 years, derived from an Antarctic ice core.
Human-induced change
Greenhouse Gases
Certain naturally occurring gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O), trap heat in the atmosphere causing a greenhouse effect. Burning of fossil fuels, like oil, coal, and natural gas is adding CO2 to the atmosphere. The current level is the highest in the past 650,000 years. The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes, “That most of the observed increase in the globally averaged
Temperature since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations.”
What is being done to Study the Effects of Climate Change?
There are numerous potential effects of climate change. Extensive research is being done around the world – a good deal within NOAA – to determine the extent to which climate change is occurring, how much of it is being caused by anthropogenic (manmade) forces, and its potential impacts. In some of these areas, there is not a consensus among scientists and in fact, there are often conflicting points-of-view and studies. However, with further research, no doubt many questions regarding impacts will be resolved in the future. Potential impacts most studied by researchers include the effects on sea level, drought, local weather, and hurricanes. Most of our current knowledge of global change comes from General Circulation Models (GCMs).
At present, GCMs have the ability to provide us with a mean annual temperature for the planet that is reliable. Regional and local temperature and precipitation information from GCMs is, at present, unreliable. Much of the global change research effort is focused on improving these models.
Thursday, May 12, 2011
Eco-Friendly Tips
1. Bike, use public transit, carpool to work, drive slower, keep your tires inflated
One-third of all traffic is commuters. Use alternative transportation when possible. If you must drive, go slower with proper tire inflation. It saves both fuel and tires, and lowers emissions. It also saves lives.
2. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Compost
Reusing packaging material saves more energy than recycling. By avoiding extra packaging, you save both energy and landfill space. Yard and kitchen waste (leaves/grass/vegetable scraps) are 30% of trash. Reduce this amount by composting. Also be sure to re-use plastic bags, or better yet... refuse plastic bags when you really don't need them.
3. Conserve water
Don't let faucets run. Never water your lawn at midday. Place a brick in old toilets. Take low flow short showers. Run the dishwasher only when it is full. Let grass grow longer. Plant native or drought-tolerant garden plants.
4. Quit smoking
Second-hand smoke is a major indoor air pollutant and health hazard. When you quit, both you and your family will lead longer and healthier lives.
5. Don't use pesticides/herbicides on your lawn
Along with nitrogen fertilizer runoff, these are major water pollutants.
6.Keep your cat indoors
Domestic cats kill over one billion small birds and animals every year (1 outdoor cat averages 40 kills per year). They upset natural predator/prey balances and eliminate ground nesting birds.
7.Eat less meat/eat more local and organic foods
Feedlots are a major source of organic pollution. Tropical forests are cut to raise beef.
8.Lower your thermostat in the winter. Raise it in the summer
Wearing a sweater in the winter and short sleeves in the summer saves energy and reduces pollution.
9. Dispose of old paint, chemicals, and oil properly
Don't put batteries, antifreeze, paint, motor oil, or chemicals in the trash. Use proper toxics disposal sites. Never buy more than you need.
10. Consider the environmental costs of major decisions and purchases
When relocating or changing jobs try to live close to work. Compare efficiency when purchasing new cars or appliances. Buy fewer things. Choose products with lower energy inputs.
11. Volunteer/Lobby for the Environment
Work locally and globally to save natural places, reduce urban sprawl, lower pollution and prevent the destruction of wilderness areas for timber and oil.
12. Plant a tree with a child
Take a walk in the woods, or plant trees which store CO2. Teaching our children to love and care for the planet is the most important thing we can do to insure the future of humankind.
13. Wash dishes by hand in a basin, and then use the dish water for outdoor gardens.
One-third of all traffic is commuters. Use alternative transportation when possible. If you must drive, go slower with proper tire inflation. It saves both fuel and tires, and lowers emissions. It also saves lives.
2. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Compost
Reusing packaging material saves more energy than recycling. By avoiding extra packaging, you save both energy and landfill space. Yard and kitchen waste (leaves/grass/vegetable scraps) are 30% of trash. Reduce this amount by composting. Also be sure to re-use plastic bags, or better yet... refuse plastic bags when you really don't need them.
3. Conserve water
Don't let faucets run. Never water your lawn at midday. Place a brick in old toilets. Take low flow short showers. Run the dishwasher only when it is full. Let grass grow longer. Plant native or drought-tolerant garden plants.
4. Quit smoking
Second-hand smoke is a major indoor air pollutant and health hazard. When you quit, both you and your family will lead longer and healthier lives.
5. Don't use pesticides/herbicides on your lawn
Along with nitrogen fertilizer runoff, these are major water pollutants.
6.Keep your cat indoors
Domestic cats kill over one billion small birds and animals every year (1 outdoor cat averages 40 kills per year). They upset natural predator/prey balances and eliminate ground nesting birds.
7.Eat less meat/eat more local and organic foods
Feedlots are a major source of organic pollution. Tropical forests are cut to raise beef.
8.Lower your thermostat in the winter. Raise it in the summer
Wearing a sweater in the winter and short sleeves in the summer saves energy and reduces pollution.
9. Dispose of old paint, chemicals, and oil properly
Don't put batteries, antifreeze, paint, motor oil, or chemicals in the trash. Use proper toxics disposal sites. Never buy more than you need.
10. Consider the environmental costs of major decisions and purchases
When relocating or changing jobs try to live close to work. Compare efficiency when purchasing new cars or appliances. Buy fewer things. Choose products with lower energy inputs.
11. Volunteer/Lobby for the Environment
Work locally and globally to save natural places, reduce urban sprawl, lower pollution and prevent the destruction of wilderness areas for timber and oil.
12. Plant a tree with a child
Take a walk in the woods, or plant trees which store CO2. Teaching our children to love and care for the planet is the most important thing we can do to insure the future of humankind.
13. Wash dishes by hand in a basin, and then use the dish water for outdoor gardens.
Wednesday, May 11, 2011
Brundtland Commission 1983
Brundtland Commission or the World commission on Environment and development set up by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1983, brought in common use the phrases “Sustainable Development”. It defined sustainable development thus sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.
The brundtland report identifies two key concepts in sustainable development they are:
a) The concept of “needs” in particular the essentials needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given.
b) The idea of limitation imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.
The brundtland commission adopted the following general principles, rights and responsibilities for environmental protection and sustainable development.
• Everyone has the fundamental right to an environment adequate for his or her well being.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to conserve and use the environment and natural resources for the beneficial of the present and future generations.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to maintain ecosystem and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere. They shall also preserve biological diversity and observe the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of living natural resources and ecosystems.
• It is the responsibility of the state to establish adequate environmental protection standards and monitor changes in and publish relevant data on environmental quality and resource use.
• It is the responsibility of the states to inform in a timely manner all people likely to be significantly affected by a planned activity and to grant them equall access due process in administrative and judicial proceeding.
• It is the responsibility of the states to ensure that conservations is treated as integral part of the planning and implementation of the developmental activities and provide assistance to other states, especially to developing countries.
FIRST EARTH SUMMIT, 1992
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as Earth Summit, was held in 1992 in Rio De Janeiro city of Brazil for the protection of the earth and its environment, maintenance of ecological balance and to enrich biodiversity. The conference was attended by the representative of 178 developed and developing countries. The primary objective of the conference were to arrive at commonly acceptable, agreements and their implementation to tackle the problems of global warming, depletion of ozone layer and ozone hole, deforestation, biodiversity, weather and climate change, acid rain, sustainable development etc. The following were the important agenda of the conference.
• An attempt was made at the time of earth summit for an agreement to reduce the emission of green house gases at 1990 level by 2000 AD by the developed countries to tackle the problem of global rise in temperature and its consequential adverse effects in future but no concrete agreement could be arrived at. It was commonly agreed upon to cut the emission of green house gases but neither any concrete formula nor any time limit could be decided for this purpose.
• Forest Conservation: At the time of earth summit all the participants expressed deep concern and anger at the rapacious and reckless cutting of forests. It may be pointed out that according to an estimate about 8,000 years ago 8,000 million hectares of land were covered with forests which decreased to 3,000 million hectares by 1998. Thus the modern society has already consumed two third of world forest cover. It may be remembered that one third tropical rainforests were cleared by 1972 and the loss of remaining rain forest began at the annual rate of 0.5% (i.e 100,000 km2 forest areas per year). The annual rate of loss of rain forest reached the figure of 170,000 km2 by the year 1992. According to United Nations data (1989) forest area is being lost at the annual rate of 2,000,000 hectares in Asia and Pacific regions. Even in Brazil 620,000 km2 of forest area was cleared in the decade 1980-1990.
• Biodiversity: Biodiversity involves different species of plants and animals. It includes diversity within and between species and ecosystems. The richness or poorness of biodiversity of a region depends on the number of their species i.e. larger the number of species, richer the biodiversity and vice-versa. Ecological balance of a region is directly related to greater or richer biodiversity. According to the scientists the known species of the earth are 40,000,000 out of which 10,000 species are becoming extinct every year due to human economic activities9e.g. Extension in agricultural land, increase in agricultural productivity, construction of dams and reservoirs, accelerated soil erosion, industrial development, urbanization etc.). Similarly species of marine organisms are being destroyed due to pollution of sea water (mainly oil sink). Thus, in order to check the loss of biodiversity consequent upon human greedy economic activities a proposal for bio-conservation was presented at the Rio Summit where it was provided that if the developed countries use the biological wealth of the developing countries, then they would have to transfer bio-technologies free of cost to the concerned developing countries.
• Agenda 21: agenda 21 is a comprehensive document which included 1,145 action plans. These agenda include rights and duties related to the environment of the nations for the 21st century and thereafter. The major agenda cover the following items:
i. Aid Funds: Industrialized rich countries agreed to contribute 0.7% of their national income to aid fund. A target of expenditure of 600 billion $ out of the fund per was fixed to implement Agenda 21 between 1993 and 2000 AD. Out of this annual expenditure 475 billion $ were earmarked for developing countries.
ii. Poverty Eradication: It was agreed under Agenda 21 that all possible efforts would be made to increase per capita in the developing countries. It may be mentioned that at the time of Rio summit the number of people having one US $ per capita income per day in the world was 1.2 billion which according to the Human development report of UNO 1997, increased to 1.3 billion. It is evident that this action plan also confined to the proper work and remained in the file.
iii. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development: This Agenda included the following programmed – review of the agricultural policy to ensure people participation, to diversify employment in agriculture, to provide information about land resource management, land conservation and rehabilitation. A target of 31.8 billion US $ per year was fixed for the implementation of this Agenda but this also proved futile due to lack of requisite fund.
iv. Forest Conservation: Though there was unanimous agreement for the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests but no definite law could be enacted for the purpose. In spite of Rio Summit reckless felling of trees continued. 15% more forests were cleared in 1996 in comparison to 1992 lever.
v. Biodiversity: Only 150 countries out of 178 participating countries in the Earth Summit in 1992, could sign the agreement to enrich the biodiversity. The agreement on biodiversity included three programmes i.e
a) To ensure conservation of biodiversity.
b) Sustainable use of biodiversity,
c) Rational and equitable shear of profit to accure from the use of genetic resources.
According to this agreement the country should have complete control over its biotic resources and full right over the profit accruing from them. If the biotic resources of a country are commercially used by another country, the country possessing the biotic resource can sign an agreement with the user country for sharing the profit occurring there from.
The brundtland report identifies two key concepts in sustainable development they are:
a) The concept of “needs” in particular the essentials needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given.
b) The idea of limitation imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.
The brundtland commission adopted the following general principles, rights and responsibilities for environmental protection and sustainable development.
• Everyone has the fundamental right to an environment adequate for his or her well being.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to conserve and use the environment and natural resources for the beneficial of the present and future generations.
• It is the responsibilities of the state to maintain ecosystem and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere. They shall also preserve biological diversity and observe the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of living natural resources and ecosystems.
• It is the responsibility of the state to establish adequate environmental protection standards and monitor changes in and publish relevant data on environmental quality and resource use.
• It is the responsibility of the states to inform in a timely manner all people likely to be significantly affected by a planned activity and to grant them equall access due process in administrative and judicial proceeding.
• It is the responsibility of the states to ensure that conservations is treated as integral part of the planning and implementation of the developmental activities and provide assistance to other states, especially to developing countries.
FIRST EARTH SUMMIT, 1992
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as Earth Summit, was held in 1992 in Rio De Janeiro city of Brazil for the protection of the earth and its environment, maintenance of ecological balance and to enrich biodiversity. The conference was attended by the representative of 178 developed and developing countries. The primary objective of the conference were to arrive at commonly acceptable, agreements and their implementation to tackle the problems of global warming, depletion of ozone layer and ozone hole, deforestation, biodiversity, weather and climate change, acid rain, sustainable development etc. The following were the important agenda of the conference.
• An attempt was made at the time of earth summit for an agreement to reduce the emission of green house gases at 1990 level by 2000 AD by the developed countries to tackle the problem of global rise in temperature and its consequential adverse effects in future but no concrete agreement could be arrived at. It was commonly agreed upon to cut the emission of green house gases but neither any concrete formula nor any time limit could be decided for this purpose.
• Forest Conservation: At the time of earth summit all the participants expressed deep concern and anger at the rapacious and reckless cutting of forests. It may be pointed out that according to an estimate about 8,000 years ago 8,000 million hectares of land were covered with forests which decreased to 3,000 million hectares by 1998. Thus the modern society has already consumed two third of world forest cover. It may be remembered that one third tropical rainforests were cleared by 1972 and the loss of remaining rain forest began at the annual rate of 0.5% (i.e 100,000 km2 forest areas per year). The annual rate of loss of rain forest reached the figure of 170,000 km2 by the year 1992. According to United Nations data (1989) forest area is being lost at the annual rate of 2,000,000 hectares in Asia and Pacific regions. Even in Brazil 620,000 km2 of forest area was cleared in the decade 1980-1990.
• Biodiversity: Biodiversity involves different species of plants and animals. It includes diversity within and between species and ecosystems. The richness or poorness of biodiversity of a region depends on the number of their species i.e. larger the number of species, richer the biodiversity and vice-versa. Ecological balance of a region is directly related to greater or richer biodiversity. According to the scientists the known species of the earth are 40,000,000 out of which 10,000 species are becoming extinct every year due to human economic activities9e.g. Extension in agricultural land, increase in agricultural productivity, construction of dams and reservoirs, accelerated soil erosion, industrial development, urbanization etc.). Similarly species of marine organisms are being destroyed due to pollution of sea water (mainly oil sink). Thus, in order to check the loss of biodiversity consequent upon human greedy economic activities a proposal for bio-conservation was presented at the Rio Summit where it was provided that if the developed countries use the biological wealth of the developing countries, then they would have to transfer bio-technologies free of cost to the concerned developing countries.
• Agenda 21: agenda 21 is a comprehensive document which included 1,145 action plans. These agenda include rights and duties related to the environment of the nations for the 21st century and thereafter. The major agenda cover the following items:
i. Aid Funds: Industrialized rich countries agreed to contribute 0.7% of their national income to aid fund. A target of expenditure of 600 billion $ out of the fund per was fixed to implement Agenda 21 between 1993 and 2000 AD. Out of this annual expenditure 475 billion $ were earmarked for developing countries.
ii. Poverty Eradication: It was agreed under Agenda 21 that all possible efforts would be made to increase per capita in the developing countries. It may be mentioned that at the time of Rio summit the number of people having one US $ per capita income per day in the world was 1.2 billion which according to the Human development report of UNO 1997, increased to 1.3 billion. It is evident that this action plan also confined to the proper work and remained in the file.
iii. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development: This Agenda included the following programmed – review of the agricultural policy to ensure people participation, to diversify employment in agriculture, to provide information about land resource management, land conservation and rehabilitation. A target of 31.8 billion US $ per year was fixed for the implementation of this Agenda but this also proved futile due to lack of requisite fund.
iv. Forest Conservation: Though there was unanimous agreement for the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests but no definite law could be enacted for the purpose. In spite of Rio Summit reckless felling of trees continued. 15% more forests were cleared in 1996 in comparison to 1992 lever.
v. Biodiversity: Only 150 countries out of 178 participating countries in the Earth Summit in 1992, could sign the agreement to enrich the biodiversity. The agreement on biodiversity included three programmes i.e
a) To ensure conservation of biodiversity.
b) Sustainable use of biodiversity,
c) Rational and equitable shear of profit to accure from the use of genetic resources.
According to this agreement the country should have complete control over its biotic resources and full right over the profit accruing from them. If the biotic resources of a country are commercially used by another country, the country possessing the biotic resource can sign an agreement with the user country for sharing the profit occurring there from.
Careers in the Environment
Environmental Careers
At present in the U.S. and other developing countries economists claim that the green market is one of the fastest growing segments of the economy.
Many employers are actively seeking environmentally educated graduates. They are especially interested in the people with scientific and engineering backgrounds and double major or double minors.
Environmental careers opportunities exists in a large number of fields: environmental engineering (currently the fastest growing job market), sustainable forestry and range management, parks and recreation, air and water quality control, solid waste and hazardous waste management, recycling, urban and rural land-use planning, computer modeling, ecological restoration and soil, water, fishery and wildlife conservation and management.
Environmental careers can also be found in education, environmental planning, environmental management, environmental health, toxicology, geology, ecology, conservation biology, climatology, environmental chemistry, population dynamics and regulation i.e. demography, law, risk analysis, risk management, accountings, environmental journalism, design and architecture, energy conservation and analysis, renewable energy technology, hydrology, consulting public relations, activism and lobbying, economics, diplomacy, developing and marketing, publishing( environmental magazines and books) and teaching and law enforcement(pollution detection and enforcements teams).
Saturday, April 30, 2011
Radiation and Environment
Radiation Ecology- Radiation ecology is the phenomenon of study of effects of radiation on organisms.
Radioactivity- Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous emission of , and - rays by the naturally occurring elements like Uranium, Polonium, Radium, etc.
These elements constantly undergo spontaneous change with the emission of, and - rays. The term radioactivity was coined by Madam Curie in the year 1896 A.D.
Specific Background:
• And - rays were discovered by Henri Becquerel.
• -rays were discovered by P.Villiard in 1900.
• X-rays were discovered by W. Roentgen in 1895.
• Thorium was discovered by Schmitt in 1898.
• Henry Becquerel in 1895 took up the study of phosphorescent element Uranium i.e. Potassium-Uranium Sulphate.
International Organization working in the field of Radiation:
▪ International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
Chernobyl Disaster
On April 26, 1986 a series of explosion in one of the reactors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine (Northern part of the Soviet Union) blew the massive roof off the reactor building and flew radioactive debris and dust high into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread over much of the Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and other parts of Europe and vertically encircled the planet.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.
Radioactivity- Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous emission of , and - rays by the naturally occurring elements like Uranium, Polonium, Radium, etc.
These elements constantly undergo spontaneous change with the emission of, and - rays. The term radioactivity was coined by Madam Curie in the year 1896 A.D.
Specific Background:
• And - rays were discovered by Henri Becquerel.
• -rays were discovered by P.Villiard in 1900.
• X-rays were discovered by W. Roentgen in 1895.
• Thorium was discovered by Schmitt in 1898.
• Henry Becquerel in 1895 took up the study of phosphorescent element Uranium i.e. Potassium-Uranium Sulphate.
International Organization working in the field of Radiation:
▪ International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
Chernobyl Disaster
On April 26, 1986 a series of explosion in one of the reactors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine (Northern part of the Soviet Union) blew the massive roof off the reactor building and flew radioactive debris and dust high into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread over much of the Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and other parts of Europe and vertically encircled the planet.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.
Wednesday, April 13, 2011
A Black Day in Bhopal
December 2, 1984 will be a black day for India, because on that date the world’s worst industrial accident occurred at a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India.
Some about 36 metric tons of (40 tons) of highly toxic methyl iso cyan ate (MIC) gas, used to produce carbonate pesticides, erupted from an underground storage tank after water leaked in through faulty valves and corroded pipes and caused an explosive chemical reaction. Once in the atmosphere, some of the toxic MIC was converted to even more deadly hydrogen cyanide gas.
The toxic cloud of gas settled over about 78 Sq. Km. exposing up to 600,000 people. Many of these people were illegal squatters (livings near the plant) because they had no other place to go. Since the safety Sirens at the plant had been turned off, the deadly cloud spread through Bhopal without warning.
Eyes, mouths and lungs burned, some victims tried to flee through the narrow streets but many were trampled. Others drowned in their own bodily fluids from exposure to toxic gas. Many of the old, infant and very young died in their sleep.
According to the Indian officials at least 6,000 people (some say that around 7,000-16,000based on the scales of strounds and cremation wood) were killed. An international team of Medical specialists estimated that in 1996 50,000-60,000 people sustained permanent injuries such as blindness, lungs damage and neurological problems.
The economic damage from the accident was estimated at $4.1 billion. Indian officials claim that Union Carbide probably could prevent the tragedy by spending no more than $1 million to upgrade the plant equipment and improve the safety. According to Indian officials the already substandard plant was in the middle of a cost cutting campaign. Management was reducing training time for machine operators and skimping on safety measures.
On the night of the disaster, six safety measures designed to prevent a leakage of toxic materials were inadequate, shut down or malfunctioning. However, Union Carbide officials contend that the accident was the result of sabotage by a disgruntled Indian employee.
After the accident, Union Carbide reduced the corporation’s liability risks for compensating victims by selling off a portion of its assets and giving much of the profits to its shareholders in the form of special dividends. In 1994, Union Carbide’s sold its holdings in India. In 1989 Union Carbide agreed to pay an out of court settlement of $470 million to compensate the victims without admitting any guilt or negligence concerning the accident. The company also spent $100 million to build a hospital for the victims. By 2000, most victims with injuries had received $600 in compensation and families of victims who died had received about $3,000.
On Dec 21 1999- the 15th anniversary of the disaster survivors and families of people killed by the accident filed a law suit in a New York U.S. district court charging the Union Carbide company and its former chief officer with violating international law and the fundamental human rights of the victims and survivors of the Bhopal plant accident.
The lawsuit alleges-(I) that Union Carbide “demonstrated a reckless and depraved indifference to human life in the design, operation and maintenance of the Union Carbide facility in Bhopal” (II) that the defendants are liable for fraud and civil contempt for lawful total failure to comply with the lawful orders of the courts of both the United States and India.
Some about 36 metric tons of (40 tons) of highly toxic methyl iso cyan ate (MIC) gas, used to produce carbonate pesticides, erupted from an underground storage tank after water leaked in through faulty valves and corroded pipes and caused an explosive chemical reaction. Once in the atmosphere, some of the toxic MIC was converted to even more deadly hydrogen cyanide gas.
The toxic cloud of gas settled over about 78 Sq. Km. exposing up to 600,000 people. Many of these people were illegal squatters (livings near the plant) because they had no other place to go. Since the safety Sirens at the plant had been turned off, the deadly cloud spread through Bhopal without warning.
Eyes, mouths and lungs burned, some victims tried to flee through the narrow streets but many were trampled. Others drowned in their own bodily fluids from exposure to toxic gas. Many of the old, infant and very young died in their sleep.
According to the Indian officials at least 6,000 people (some say that around 7,000-16,000based on the scales of strounds and cremation wood) were killed. An international team of Medical specialists estimated that in 1996 50,000-60,000 people sustained permanent injuries such as blindness, lungs damage and neurological problems.
The economic damage from the accident was estimated at $4.1 billion. Indian officials claim that Union Carbide probably could prevent the tragedy by spending no more than $1 million to upgrade the plant equipment and improve the safety. According to Indian officials the already substandard plant was in the middle of a cost cutting campaign. Management was reducing training time for machine operators and skimping on safety measures.
On the night of the disaster, six safety measures designed to prevent a leakage of toxic materials were inadequate, shut down or malfunctioning. However, Union Carbide officials contend that the accident was the result of sabotage by a disgruntled Indian employee.
After the accident, Union Carbide reduced the corporation’s liability risks for compensating victims by selling off a portion of its assets and giving much of the profits to its shareholders in the form of special dividends. In 1994, Union Carbide’s sold its holdings in India. In 1989 Union Carbide agreed to pay an out of court settlement of $470 million to compensate the victims without admitting any guilt or negligence concerning the accident. The company also spent $100 million to build a hospital for the victims. By 2000, most victims with injuries had received $600 in compensation and families of victims who died had received about $3,000.
On Dec 21 1999- the 15th anniversary of the disaster survivors and families of people killed by the accident filed a law suit in a New York U.S. district court charging the Union Carbide company and its former chief officer with violating international law and the fundamental human rights of the victims and survivors of the Bhopal plant accident.
The lawsuit alleges-(I) that Union Carbide “demonstrated a reckless and depraved indifference to human life in the design, operation and maintenance of the Union Carbide facility in Bhopal” (II) that the defendants are liable for fraud and civil contempt for lawful total failure to comply with the lawful orders of the courts of both the United States and India.
Chernobyl Disaster
On April 26, 1986 a series of explosion in one of the reactors in a nuclear power plant in Ukraine (Northern part of the Soviet Union) blew the massive roof off the reactor building and flew radioactive debris and dust high into the atmosphere. A huge radioactive cloud spread over much of the Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and other parts of Europe and vertically encircled the planet.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.
The consequences of this disaster according to UN studies caused by poor reactor design and human error:
• By the year 2000, an estimated 8,000 people had died prematurely from radiation-related diseases because of the accident. The Ukrainian Health Ministry says that 125,000 people had died and 3.5 million people have become ill because of the accident.
• Almost 400,000 people had to leave their homes; most were not evacuated until at least 10 days after the accident.
• Some 160,000 Sq. Km. about the size of state of Florida of the former Soviet Union remains highly contaminated with radioactivity.
• Despite the danger between 100,000 & 200,000 people either illegally remained or has returned to live inside this highly radioactive zone.
• More than half a million people were exposed to dangerous levels of radioactivity. About 2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer and 8,000-10,000 additional thyroid cancer cases are expected between 2000 & 2010.
• The total cost of the accident will reach at least $358 billion many times more than the value of all the nuclear electricity ever generated in the former Soviet Union.
The environmental refugees evacuated from the Chernobyl region had to leave their professions behind and say good-bye to-(I) lush green wheat fields and blossoming apple trees, (II) Land their families had farmed for generations, (III) Cows and goats that would be shot because the grass they ate was radioactive(IV) their radioactivity poisoned cats and dogs. They will not be able to return without exposing themselves to potentially harmful doses of ionizing radiation. In 2002 after 16 years of the accident-the Chernobyl power plant remains one of the most dangerous places on the Earth.
Chernobyl taught us that a major nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere.
Thursday, February 17, 2011
Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy
The choice of the antimicrobial used for the treatment of an infection is influenced by several factor: the age of the patient, the site of infection, immune status of the patient, efficacy of the drug, the profile of adverse effects, the prevalence of anti-microbial resistance and the concomitant presence of other systemic diseases or organ dysfunction.
The cephalosporins include three generations of agents. The second generation extends the antimicrobial spectrum of the first generation to include wide range of gram negative rods and Pseudomonas.
The -lactams act by inhibiting the incorporation of peptidoglycon into the bacterial cell wall. Penicilin G still remains the drug of choice for syphilis, meningococci, clostridia and pneumococcous. Ampicillin has an extended spectrum of activity aganst gram negative rods(Salmonella, Hemophilus influenzae). Penicillinase-resistant penicilins are the drugs of choice for infections due to -lactamase producing staphylococci. Piperacillin and ticarcillin are antipseudomonal penicillins.
The cephalosporins include three generations of agents. The second generation extends the antimicrobial spectrum of the first generation to include wide range of gram negative rods and Pseudomonas.
The -lactams act by inhibiting the incorporation of peptidoglycon into the bacterial cell wall. Penicilin G still remains the drug of choice for syphilis, meningococci, clostridia and pneumococcous. Ampicillin has an extended spectrum of activity aganst gram negative rods(Salmonella, Hemophilus influenzae). Penicillinase-resistant penicilins are the drugs of choice for infections due to -lactamase producing staphylococci. Piperacillin and ticarcillin are antipseudomonal penicillins.
Wednesday, February 9, 2011
Diagnostic methods in infectious diseases
Microbiologic confirmation of an infectious diseses may be obtained by direct demonstration of the organism, by growing the organism in culture or by serologic method.
Direct demonstration of an infective agent may be:
By direct microscopy: India ink preparation(cryptococi), dark ground illumination(vibrio spirochestes), KOH preparation(dermatophytes) and wet wount(stool parasites).
By staining:Gram stain(malaria),Giemsa stain(chlamydia), Ziehl-Nielsen stain(acid-fast bacilli), silver stains(pneumocystis).
By antigen detection using latex agglutination teste. (meningococcus, pneumcococcus) and enzyme immunoassay.
Culture method: Proper collection technique(for clinical specimen), suitable transport and culture media and optimal growth conditions may be requuired for fastidious organisms(such as anaerobes), phenotyphic characterization may be done and antibiotic sensitivity determined after culture of the organism.
Serologic method: This method may be the only method for diagnosing viral, rickettisal, chalamydial and mycoplasma infections. Serology also provides supportive evidnce for certain bacterial infections( also for streptococci, widal for typhoid).
Direct demonstration of an infective agent may be:
By direct microscopy: India ink preparation(cryptococi), dark ground illumination(vibrio spirochestes), KOH preparation(dermatophytes) and wet wount(stool parasites).
By staining:Gram stain(malaria),Giemsa stain(chlamydia), Ziehl-Nielsen stain(acid-fast bacilli), silver stains(pneumocystis).
By antigen detection using latex agglutination teste. (meningococcus, pneumcococcus) and enzyme immunoassay.
Culture method: Proper collection technique(for clinical specimen), suitable transport and culture media and optimal growth conditions may be requuired for fastidious organisms(such as anaerobes), phenotyphic characterization may be done and antibiotic sensitivity determined after culture of the organism.
Serologic method: This method may be the only method for diagnosing viral, rickettisal, chalamydial and mycoplasma infections. Serology also provides supportive evidnce for certain bacterial infections( also for streptococci, widal for typhoid).
Friday, February 4, 2011
Fever
Fever of more than three weeks duration remaining undiagnosed after a week of hospitalization is defined as pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO).
PUO may be due to the infections, malignancy, inflammatory diseases, drugs or factitious. Infections are the leading causes of PUO tuberculosis often extrapulmonary, HIV infection, infective endocarditis, prolonged mononucleosis, intraabdominal abscess and fungal infections.
Malignancies associated with PUO are lymphomas, leukemia, renal cell carcinoma and hepatoma. Immunoinflammatory causes of PUO include SLE and adult Still’s diseases.
A proper detailed history and physical examination is critical in estabilishing a dignosis and for planing investigations. The pattern of fever is seldom diagnostic by itself. Drug history, occupational hisory and sexual practices are important areas that need to be investigated.
Routine haematologic and urinary investigations, serum chemistry and chest X-ray are important investigations in all patients. A markedly elevated ESR may indicate an infection or immunoinflammatory diseases, temporal athritis, Still’s diseases. US/CT may be obtained for evaluating hepatobiliary, renal, retroperitoneal and pelvic sources of PUO and for screening for occult primaries. An echocardiogram may be ordered if endocarditis is suspected. Biopsy of the bone marrow or liver may be useful if the non-invasive investigations do not yield a definitive diagnosis.
In the absence of a definite diagnosis, a therapeutic trial of antitubercular therapy may be instituted for six weeks.
Causes of prolonged fever
• Infections
o Polygenic infection: pyogenic abscess, cholangitis, pelvic abscess, diverticular abscess, thermbophlebitis.
o Vascular infection: Infective endocartitis, infected vascular access devices.
o Chronic granulomatious infection: Tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial infections, fungal infection.
o Other prolonged bacterial and rickettisial illnesses: Brucellosis, chronic meningococcemia.
• Immunoinflammatory diseases: Systemic lumps erythematosus, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis(stills diseases), vasculitis including giant cell arthritis.
• Neoplasms: Primary (renal, pancreas, hepatic, lung, colon), secondary(hepatic secondaries), lymphoid neoplasms(lymphomas).
• Granulomatous conditions: Sarcoidosis.
• Metabolic and familial conditions: Familial Mediterranean fever, Fabry’s diseases.
• Drug induced fever
• Factitious fever
• Undiagnosed fever.
PUO may be due to the infections, malignancy, inflammatory diseases, drugs or factitious. Infections are the leading causes of PUO tuberculosis often extrapulmonary, HIV infection, infective endocarditis, prolonged mononucleosis, intraabdominal abscess and fungal infections.
Malignancies associated with PUO are lymphomas, leukemia, renal cell carcinoma and hepatoma. Immunoinflammatory causes of PUO include SLE and adult Still’s diseases.
A proper detailed history and physical examination is critical in estabilishing a dignosis and for planing investigations. The pattern of fever is seldom diagnostic by itself. Drug history, occupational hisory and sexual practices are important areas that need to be investigated.
Routine haematologic and urinary investigations, serum chemistry and chest X-ray are important investigations in all patients. A markedly elevated ESR may indicate an infection or immunoinflammatory diseases, temporal athritis, Still’s diseases. US/CT may be obtained for evaluating hepatobiliary, renal, retroperitoneal and pelvic sources of PUO and for screening for occult primaries. An echocardiogram may be ordered if endocarditis is suspected. Biopsy of the bone marrow or liver may be useful if the non-invasive investigations do not yield a definitive diagnosis.
In the absence of a definite diagnosis, a therapeutic trial of antitubercular therapy may be instituted for six weeks.
Causes of prolonged fever
• Infections
o Polygenic infection: pyogenic abscess, cholangitis, pelvic abscess, diverticular abscess, thermbophlebitis.
o Vascular infection: Infective endocartitis, infected vascular access devices.
o Chronic granulomatious infection: Tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial infections, fungal infection.
o Other prolonged bacterial and rickettisial illnesses: Brucellosis, chronic meningococcemia.
• Immunoinflammatory diseases: Systemic lumps erythematosus, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis(stills diseases), vasculitis including giant cell arthritis.
• Neoplasms: Primary (renal, pancreas, hepatic, lung, colon), secondary(hepatic secondaries), lymphoid neoplasms(lymphomas).
• Granulomatous conditions: Sarcoidosis.
• Metabolic and familial conditions: Familial Mediterranean fever, Fabry’s diseases.
• Drug induced fever
• Factitious fever
• Undiagnosed fever.
Friday, January 28, 2011
Infection and immunity:
Infection and immunity: The result of any infection depends partly on the virulence and numbers of the invading organisms and partly on the state of the patients defences against them. The state of defences depends upon the two factors: the degree of natural immunity inherited from the parents, which may be reduced by such general influences as malnutrition, worry and overwork and whether there is any acquired immunity resulting from the previous infection with this particular organism. Most infectious diseases confer life long specific immunity. So that second attacks are very unusual. Furthermore, suitable injections of killed or weakened organisms or their toxins may stimulate this specific immunity without actively causing any clinical illness: this fact is the basis of the immunization procedures which are so important in the prevention of diseases such as diptheria, tetanus, poliomyelitis and typhoid. Passive immunization means conferring temporary protection against a diseases by injecting serum which has been taken from someone with an active immunity and which therefore contains a high concentrated of specific antibodies.
Carriers:Some people who are themselves immune from a particular infectious diseases may nevertheless harbour the specific organisms and transmit them from time to time to susceptible persons, either by direct contact or by infecting food or water. This carrier state is particularly important in the spread of typhoid fever.
Routes of infection: The invading organism usually gains access to the patient either in inspired air “droplet infection” or in contaminated food or drink.
Incubation period: After gaining access to the tissues of a susceptible individual, the invading consolidate their position before the symptoms of the diseases appear. This interval is known as the different infectious diseases, but remains in the constant in each of them. The approximate length fever is as follows below:
Less than 7 days Diptheria, Scarlet fever, Measles
10 to 14 days Whooping cough, Small pox, Enteric fever
14 to 21 days Chicken pox, German measles, Mumps.
It is important to know the incubation period of the various specific fevers, since it is occasionally helpful in diagnosis if the date of exposure to infection is known and also because it enables one to forecast the possible appearance of the diseases in people who have been in contact with the small pox it may be advisable to isolate such contacts until it is known whether or not they have contracted the diseases: the duration of this quarantine is worked out by adding a few days to the known incubation period.
Carriers:Some people who are themselves immune from a particular infectious diseases may nevertheless harbour the specific organisms and transmit them from time to time to susceptible persons, either by direct contact or by infecting food or water. This carrier state is particularly important in the spread of typhoid fever.
Routes of infection: The invading organism usually gains access to the patient either in inspired air “droplet infection” or in contaminated food or drink.
Incubation period: After gaining access to the tissues of a susceptible individual, the invading consolidate their position before the symptoms of the diseases appear. This interval is known as the different infectious diseases, but remains in the constant in each of them. The approximate length fever is as follows below:
Less than 7 days Diptheria, Scarlet fever, Measles
10 to 14 days Whooping cough, Small pox, Enteric fever
14 to 21 days Chicken pox, German measles, Mumps.
It is important to know the incubation period of the various specific fevers, since it is occasionally helpful in diagnosis if the date of exposure to infection is known and also because it enables one to forecast the possible appearance of the diseases in people who have been in contact with the small pox it may be advisable to isolate such contacts until it is known whether or not they have contracted the diseases: the duration of this quarantine is worked out by adding a few days to the known incubation period.
Wednesday, January 26, 2011
Infectious diseases
Definition-Although the term “infectious diseases” might be logically be applied to any illness which results from invasion of the body by a microorganism, its use is customarily restricted to those diseases which spread by direct contact from person to person.At this time we should not be concerned with diseases like pneumonia or bacterial endocarditis which though due to infection can safely be nursed in general wards without special barrier precautions.
The occurance of illness in human is the result of the complex interactions between the responsible agent(exposure) the host and the environment( the epidemiological triad).
The virulence of an organism depends on its infectivity(ability to colonise) and its pathogenicity(ability to damage).
Diseases which are associated with a long incubation period are more difficult to control. The first lines of host defence against microorganisms are the physical and chemical barriers: these include the skin, mucosa, normal secretions, internal sphinchters and the resident endogenous flora.
Initially, microorganisms elicit a non-specific inflammatory host response: the recruitment of polymorphonuclear cells and the elaboration of cytokines are important components of this response. The macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system(splenic and alveolar macrophages, hepatic Kupffer cells, renal masangial cells and CNS microglia) play an important role in this response.
An organism specific immune response is also mounted by the host: activation of T and B lymphocytes culminates in immunoglobulin production and complement activation. Cell mediated immunity plays a ritical role in cambating intracellular bacteria.
Bacteremia refers to the presence of viable bacteria in blood. Infection refers to the presence of a microorganism in the body with a local inflammatory response. Sepsis refers to the presence of microorganism in the body with a systemic inflammatory response. Severe sepsis refers to sepsis associated with organ dysfunction, perfusion abnormalities or hypotension. Hypertension which is the main problem at present.
The occurance of illness in human is the result of the complex interactions between the responsible agent(exposure) the host and the environment( the epidemiological triad).
The virulence of an organism depends on its infectivity(ability to colonise) and its pathogenicity(ability to damage).
Diseases which are associated with a long incubation period are more difficult to control. The first lines of host defence against microorganisms are the physical and chemical barriers: these include the skin, mucosa, normal secretions, internal sphinchters and the resident endogenous flora.
Initially, microorganisms elicit a non-specific inflammatory host response: the recruitment of polymorphonuclear cells and the elaboration of cytokines are important components of this response. The macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system(splenic and alveolar macrophages, hepatic Kupffer cells, renal masangial cells and CNS microglia) play an important role in this response.
An organism specific immune response is also mounted by the host: activation of T and B lymphocytes culminates in immunoglobulin production and complement activation. Cell mediated immunity plays a ritical role in cambating intracellular bacteria.
Bacteremia refers to the presence of viable bacteria in blood. Infection refers to the presence of a microorganism in the body with a local inflammatory response. Sepsis refers to the presence of microorganism in the body with a systemic inflammatory response. Severe sepsis refers to sepsis associated with organ dysfunction, perfusion abnormalities or hypotension. Hypertension which is the main problem at present.
Tuesday, January 25, 2011
Conservation
Conservation is the management of the benefits of all life including human kind of the biosphere so that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet needs and aspirations of the future generations.
Conservation of biological resources or natural resources has the following objectives:
To maintain the essential ecological process and life supporting system.
To preserve biological diversity.
To ensure that any utilization of species and ecosystems is sustainable.
Further we can say, fundamentally here are two reasons for conservations if can either benefit for human beings or for the benefit for the species.
Conservation involves the following four major proceses:
• Preservation of the endangered habitats or species.
• Management of ecosystem.
• Rreclamation of damaged habitats.
• Creation of new habitats.
Mainly there are two types of conservation.
• Ex-situ conservation
• In-situ conservation.
In situ conservation
In situ is the conservation of natural resources in their natural habitats or area of origin. The wildlife is conserved in protected areas systems such as national parks, wildlife reserve, conservation areas. In situ conaervation is the best method for the conservation in long run as the animals adapted to the natural condition since generations.
Ex situ conservation
Ex situ conservation is the conservation of natural resources outside their natural habitats or area of origin. An artificial but similarenvironment or habitats is maintained in place different than the original.Wildlife of threatened categories are kept in captivity which are artificially breeded. This method ensures that the species does not extinct. After the successful breeding in captivity, the offsprings can be reintroduced in natural environment. Examples botanical garden, zoo, zoological garden, aquarium, gene bank, etc.
Conservation of natural resources is the challenging task of the world. Conservation cannot be achieved in isolation. For the conservation of natural resources, these must be global alliance. The conservation education and ethnics should be imparted to all levels of society. The future of humanity depends upon the conservation of natural resources.
In practice following principles are to be adopted for the conservation of natural resources:
Reduce: Resources are limited and therefore we must not waste resources. Natural resources should be use only to meet basic needs. Reduction in consumption of resources will result in the reduction of wastage of resources and less production of waste materials. For e.g. creating awarness can reduce the use of petroleum products.
Reuse: Reuse involves using the same product again and again in its original form. For e.g. glass, beverage bottles, etc. can be collected, washed and refilled. Reuse reduces energy use and pollution.
Recycling: Items containing iron and aluminium account for 94% of all metals used. Damaged metals are collected, melted and converted into new products. Papers and glasses are also recycled. This process also saves energy and causes less pollution. Reuse or recycling process is called resources recovery.
Conservation of biological resources or natural resources has the following objectives:
To maintain the essential ecological process and life supporting system.
To preserve biological diversity.
To ensure that any utilization of species and ecosystems is sustainable.
Further we can say, fundamentally here are two reasons for conservations if can either benefit for human beings or for the benefit for the species.
Conservation involves the following four major proceses:
• Preservation of the endangered habitats or species.
• Management of ecosystem.
• Rreclamation of damaged habitats.
• Creation of new habitats.
Mainly there are two types of conservation.
• Ex-situ conservation
• In-situ conservation.
In situ conservation
In situ is the conservation of natural resources in their natural habitats or area of origin. The wildlife is conserved in protected areas systems such as national parks, wildlife reserve, conservation areas. In situ conaervation is the best method for the conservation in long run as the animals adapted to the natural condition since generations.
Ex situ conservation
Ex situ conservation is the conservation of natural resources outside their natural habitats or area of origin. An artificial but similarenvironment or habitats is maintained in place different than the original.Wildlife of threatened categories are kept in captivity which are artificially breeded. This method ensures that the species does not extinct. After the successful breeding in captivity, the offsprings can be reintroduced in natural environment. Examples botanical garden, zoo, zoological garden, aquarium, gene bank, etc.
Conservation of natural resources is the challenging task of the world. Conservation cannot be achieved in isolation. For the conservation of natural resources, these must be global alliance. The conservation education and ethnics should be imparted to all levels of society. The future of humanity depends upon the conservation of natural resources.
In practice following principles are to be adopted for the conservation of natural resources:
Reduce: Resources are limited and therefore we must not waste resources. Natural resources should be use only to meet basic needs. Reduction in consumption of resources will result in the reduction of wastage of resources and less production of waste materials. For e.g. creating awarness can reduce the use of petroleum products.
Reuse: Reuse involves using the same product again and again in its original form. For e.g. glass, beverage bottles, etc. can be collected, washed and refilled. Reuse reduces energy use and pollution.
Recycling: Items containing iron and aluminium account for 94% of all metals used. Damaged metals are collected, melted and converted into new products. Papers and glasses are also recycled. This process also saves energy and causes less pollution. Reuse or recycling process is called resources recovery.
Sunday, January 23, 2011
Variety in the volcano
Variety in the volcano
Based on the history of the activity done by Volcano
Active-These volcanoes are currently errupting or exhibiting unrest through earthquakes and other gas emissions.
Dormant-These volcanoes are inactive, but have not been so long enough to be declared extinct.
Extinct-These volcanoes have been inactive in all of therecorded history.
Based on the shape Volcanoes are
Volcanic cone-These are among the simplest volcanic formations. These are built up of ejected materials around a volcanic cones are differentiated into cinder cones, spatter cones, ash cones and tuff cones. Cinder cones(Scoria cones) are built almost entirely of loose volcanic fragments called cinders. Hot fluid lava clots are called spatter. When spewed spatter falls back to the earth the clots weld together and solidify, forming steep-sided spatter cones. Fallen ash forms ash cone, which becomes a”tuff cone” or “tuff ring” once the loose ash particles weld together.
Shield Volcano- Shield volcanoes are formed by easily flowing lava that has low viscosity. Their heights are typically about 1/20th of their widths. The lower slopes are gentle but the middle slopes become steeper and then flatten at the summit. Many of the largest volcanoes on Earth are shield volcanoes. The Mauna Loa(Hawaii) is the world’s largest shield volcano.
Strato volcano- This is a tall, conical volcano with gentle lower slopes that rises steeply near the summit. The summit usually has a small crater. Many of the most dangerous and explosive volcanoes are stratovolcanoes. For example; Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon(Phillipines) and Mt. Agua(Guatemala).
Volcanic Erruptions
An erruptions begins when pressure on a magma chamber forces magma up and out the volcano’s vents. Of course, sideways- directed volcanic explosions(lateral blasts) can shoot ejected material at very high speeds for quite a distance. When magma reaches the Earht’s surface, it is called Lava. Lava may flows as gentle streams called lava flows or it may erupt violently into the air along with the lava are called pyroclastic rocks. This type of eruptions depends somewhat on the amount of gases and silica in the magma. The amount of Silica determines the viscosity of the magma. Steam is what powers the explosion.
Based on the history of the activity done by Volcano
Active-These volcanoes are currently errupting or exhibiting unrest through earthquakes and other gas emissions.
Dormant-These volcanoes are inactive, but have not been so long enough to be declared extinct.
Extinct-These volcanoes have been inactive in all of therecorded history.
Based on the shape Volcanoes are
Volcanic cone-These are among the simplest volcanic formations. These are built up of ejected materials around a volcanic cones are differentiated into cinder cones, spatter cones, ash cones and tuff cones. Cinder cones(Scoria cones) are built almost entirely of loose volcanic fragments called cinders. Hot fluid lava clots are called spatter. When spewed spatter falls back to the earth the clots weld together and solidify, forming steep-sided spatter cones. Fallen ash forms ash cone, which becomes a”tuff cone” or “tuff ring” once the loose ash particles weld together.
Shield Volcano- Shield volcanoes are formed by easily flowing lava that has low viscosity. Their heights are typically about 1/20th of their widths. The lower slopes are gentle but the middle slopes become steeper and then flatten at the summit. Many of the largest volcanoes on Earth are shield volcanoes. The Mauna Loa(Hawaii) is the world’s largest shield volcano.
Strato volcano- This is a tall, conical volcano with gentle lower slopes that rises steeply near the summit. The summit usually has a small crater. Many of the most dangerous and explosive volcanoes are stratovolcanoes. For example; Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon(Phillipines) and Mt. Agua(Guatemala).
Volcanic Erruptions
An erruptions begins when pressure on a magma chamber forces magma up and out the volcano’s vents. Of course, sideways- directed volcanic explosions(lateral blasts) can shoot ejected material at very high speeds for quite a distance. When magma reaches the Earht’s surface, it is called Lava. Lava may flows as gentle streams called lava flows or it may erupt violently into the air along with the lava are called pyroclastic rocks. This type of eruptions depends somewhat on the amount of gases and silica in the magma. The amount of Silica determines the viscosity of the magma. Steam is what powers the explosion.
Friday, January 21, 2011
Chrysler motors in the market
Chrysler group is working on a new hybrid minivan that doesn’t use batteries or electric motors to drive it, the automaker announced with the Environmental protection Agency.
By the end of next year a Town and Country van built around a hybrid system that relies on pumping-up hydraulic fluid, rather than expensive batteries, will be up and running, Chrysler said. The so-called hydraulic hybrid system was developed at the EPA,s Ann Arbour laboratory and the agency has been testing for years in commercial trucks.
Chrysler wants to use it for light-duty trucks, minivans and large passengers cars. Instead of storing electricity in a battery pack, the hydraulic hybrid system stores energy normally lost during braking to drive pumps that squeeze hydraulic fluid into a large on board tank that also contains a nitrogen-filled bladder. The nitrogen bladder acts like a spring, pushing back against the fluid. When a river is approcahing a stop sign, some of the breaking energy pumps fluid into the tank. As with most hybrid vehicles, the gasoline engine shuts off completely when the vehicle stops. When it’s time to go again, the pressure in the tank is released to push hydraulic motors that turn the wheels. When it’s needed, the gas engine takes over again.The system increases fuel efficiency by about 30% to 35% in overall driving and up to 60% in city driving, according to the EPA.
Among the benefits of the system, according to EPA , is its low cost and simplicity. Once produced in high volumes, the system will pay for itself through fuel savings in less than three years, the EPA predicts. Battery electric hybrid cars typically take much longer.”The EPA and Chrysler are working together to explore the possibilities for making this technology affordable and accessible to drivers everywhere,” EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson.
Hybrid cars currently make up less than two percent of all new car sales, with Toyota’s Prius model making up the largest number far with Toyota introducing a new version later this year. Chrysler is working to improve the fuel economy of its vehicle line-up and has been working to rapidly revamp its offerings, but does not currently have any hybrids on the market.
By the end of next year a Town and Country van built around a hybrid system that relies on pumping-up hydraulic fluid, rather than expensive batteries, will be up and running, Chrysler said. The so-called hydraulic hybrid system was developed at the EPA,s Ann Arbour laboratory and the agency has been testing for years in commercial trucks.
Chrysler wants to use it for light-duty trucks, minivans and large passengers cars. Instead of storing electricity in a battery pack, the hydraulic hybrid system stores energy normally lost during braking to drive pumps that squeeze hydraulic fluid into a large on board tank that also contains a nitrogen-filled bladder. The nitrogen bladder acts like a spring, pushing back against the fluid. When a river is approcahing a stop sign, some of the breaking energy pumps fluid into the tank. As with most hybrid vehicles, the gasoline engine shuts off completely when the vehicle stops. When it’s time to go again, the pressure in the tank is released to push hydraulic motors that turn the wheels. When it’s needed, the gas engine takes over again.The system increases fuel efficiency by about 30% to 35% in overall driving and up to 60% in city driving, according to the EPA.
Among the benefits of the system, according to EPA , is its low cost and simplicity. Once produced in high volumes, the system will pay for itself through fuel savings in less than three years, the EPA predicts. Battery electric hybrid cars typically take much longer.”The EPA and Chrysler are working together to explore the possibilities for making this technology affordable and accessible to drivers everywhere,” EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson.
Hybrid cars currently make up less than two percent of all new car sales, with Toyota’s Prius model making up the largest number far with Toyota introducing a new version later this year. Chrysler is working to improve the fuel economy of its vehicle line-up and has been working to rapidly revamp its offerings, but does not currently have any hybrids on the market.
Tuesday, January 18, 2011
Natural Hazards
Natural Hazards
Natural hazards are defined as , “those elements of the phyical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces extraneous to him.” The prefix “natural” shows that these exclude phenomenon that are a result of human action. An event that cause large numbers of fatalities and tremendous loss of property is a ‘natural disaster.’
Violent volcano
One of the most explosively violent elements on Earth is that of an errupting volcano as it spews forth molten lava. There are few sights more awe-inspiring than the sight of red hot lava glinting through the cracks on the softy black crust as the river of molten matter winds its way through the landscape. The most common conception about a volcano is that it is a mountain with a hole/crater at the top through which a lava escapes. Not everybody realizes that unlike most mountains, which are pushed up from below, volcanoes are built up by an accumulation of the same materials that they eject.
Volcano Architecture
A volcano constitutes a vent, a pipe, a crater and a cone.
Vent-This is the opening through which volcanic materials is ejected. A central vent underlies the summit crater of the volcano. It is connected to a magma chamber, which is the main storage area for material that is finally ejected.
Pipe- This is a passageway through which the ejected magma rises to the surface.
Crater-This is the ionic bowl-shaped depression at the top of the volcano.
Cone- Solidified lava, ashes and cinder form the cone and it rises higher with each erruption. The sides of the volcano often contain fractures that connect to the central vent or to shallow magma chambers. Magma is ejected through the sides of the volcano via these fractures. Such erruptions lead to cone shaped accumulations called parasitic cones. Fractures are also conduits for escaping gases, which are released through openings called fumaroles.
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