Infection and immunity:

Infection and immunity: The result of any infection depends partly on the virulence and numbers of the invading organisms and partly on the state of the patients defences against them. The state of defences depends upon the two factors: the degree of natural immunity inherited from the parents, which may be reduced by such general influences as malnutrition, worry and overwork and whether there is any acquired immunity resulting from the previous infection with this particular organism. Most infectious diseases confer life long specific immunity. So that second attacks are very unusual. Furthermore, suitable injections of killed or weakened organisms or their toxins may stimulate this specific immunity without actively causing any clinical illness: this fact is the basis of the immunization procedures which are so important in the prevention of diseases such as diptheria, tetanus, poliomyelitis and typhoid. Passive immunization means conferring temporary protection against a diseases by injecting serum which has been taken from someone with an active immunity and which therefore contains a high concentrated of specific antibodies.
Carriers:Some people who are themselves immune from a particular infectious diseases may nevertheless harbour the specific organisms and transmit them from time to time to susceptible persons, either by direct contact or by infecting food or water. This carrier state is particularly important in the spread of typhoid fever.
Routes of infection: The invading organism usually gains access to the patient either in inspired air “droplet infection” or in contaminated food or drink.
Incubation period: After gaining access to the tissues of a susceptible individual, the invading consolidate their position before the symptoms of the diseases appear. This interval is known as the different infectious diseases, but remains in the constant in each of them. The approximate length fever is as follows below:
Less than 7 days Diptheria, Scarlet fever, Measles
10 to 14 days Whooping cough, Small pox, Enteric fever
14 to 21 days Chicken pox, German measles, Mumps.
It is important to know the incubation period of the various specific fevers, since it is occasionally helpful in diagnosis if the date of exposure to infection is known and also because it enables one to forecast the possible appearance of the diseases in people who have been in contact with the small pox it may be advisable to isolate such contacts until it is known whether or not they have contracted the diseases: the duration of this quarantine is worked out by adding a few days to the known incubation period.

Infectious diseases

Definition-Although the term “infectious diseases” might be logically be applied to any illness which results from invasion of the body by a microorganism, its use is customarily restricted to those diseases which spread by direct contact from person to person.At this time we should not be concerned with diseases like pneumonia or bacterial endocarditis which though due to infection can safely be nursed in general wards without special barrier precautions.
The occurance of illness in human is the result of the complex interactions between the responsible agent(exposure) the host and the environment( the epidemiological triad).
The virulence of an organism depends on its infectivity(ability to colonise) and its pathogenicity(ability to damage).
Diseases which are associated with a long incubation period are more difficult to control. The first lines of host defence against microorganisms are the physical and chemical barriers: these include the skin, mucosa, normal secretions, internal sphinchters and the resident endogenous flora.
Initially, microorganisms elicit a non-specific inflammatory host response: the recruitment of polymorphonuclear cells and the elaboration of cytokines are important components of this response. The macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system(splenic and alveolar macrophages, hepatic Kupffer cells, renal masangial cells and CNS microglia) play an important role in this response.
An organism specific immune response is also mounted by the host: activation of T and B lymphocytes culminates in immunoglobulin production and complement activation. Cell mediated immunity plays a ritical role in cambating intracellular bacteria.
Bacteremia refers to the presence of viable bacteria in blood. Infection refers to the presence of a microorganism in the body with a local inflammatory response. Sepsis refers to the presence of microorganism in the body with a systemic inflammatory response. Severe sepsis refers to sepsis associated with organ dysfunction, perfusion abnormalities or hypotension. Hypertension which is the main problem at present.

Conservation

Conservation is the management of the benefits of all life including human kind of the biosphere so that it may yield sustainable benefit to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet needs and aspirations of the future generations.
Conservation of biological resources or natural resources has the following objectives:
 To maintain the essential ecological process and life supporting system.
 To preserve biological diversity.
 To ensure that any utilization of species and ecosystems is sustainable.
Further we can say, fundamentally here are two reasons for conservations if can either benefit for human beings or for the benefit for the species.
Conservation involves the following four major proceses:
• Preservation of the endangered habitats or species.
• Management of ecosystem.
• Rreclamation of damaged habitats.
• Creation of new habitats.
Mainly there are two types of conservation.
• Ex-situ conservation
• In-situ conservation.
In situ conservation
In situ is the conservation of natural resources in their natural habitats or area of origin. The wildlife is conserved in protected areas systems such as national parks, wildlife reserve, conservation areas. In situ conaervation is the best method for the conservation in long run as the animals adapted to the natural condition since generations.


Ex situ conservation
Ex situ conservation is the conservation of natural resources outside their natural habitats or area of origin. An artificial but similarenvironment or habitats is maintained in place different than the original.Wildlife of threatened categories are kept in captivity which are artificially breeded. This method ensures that the species does not extinct. After the successful breeding in captivity, the offsprings can be reintroduced in natural environment. Examples botanical garden, zoo, zoological garden, aquarium, gene bank, etc.
Conservation of natural resources is the challenging task of the world. Conservation cannot be achieved in isolation. For the conservation of natural resources, these must be global alliance. The conservation education and ethnics should be imparted to all levels of society. The future of humanity depends upon the conservation of natural resources.
In practice following principles are to be adopted for the conservation of natural resources:
 Reduce: Resources are limited and therefore we must not waste resources. Natural resources should be use only to meet basic needs. Reduction in consumption of resources will result in the reduction of wastage of resources and less production of waste materials. For e.g. creating awarness can reduce the use of petroleum products.
 Reuse: Reuse involves using the same product again and again in its original form. For e.g. glass, beverage bottles, etc. can be collected, washed and refilled. Reuse reduces energy use and pollution.
 Recycling: Items containing iron and aluminium account for 94% of all metals used. Damaged metals are collected, melted and converted into new products. Papers and glasses are also recycled. This process also saves energy and causes less pollution. Reuse or recycling process is called resources recovery.

Variety in the volcano

Variety in the volcano
Based on the history of the activity done by Volcano
 Active-These volcanoes are currently errupting or exhibiting unrest through earthquakes and other gas emissions.
 Dormant-These volcanoes are inactive, but have not been so long enough to be declared extinct.
 Extinct-These volcanoes have been inactive in all of therecorded history.

Based on the shape Volcanoes are

 Volcanic cone-These are among the simplest volcanic formations. These are built up of ejected materials around a volcanic cones are differentiated into cinder cones, spatter cones, ash cones and tuff cones. Cinder cones(Scoria cones) are built almost entirely of loose volcanic fragments called cinders. Hot fluid lava clots are called spatter. When spewed spatter falls back to the earth the clots weld together and solidify, forming steep-sided spatter cones. Fallen ash forms ash cone, which becomes a”tuff cone” or “tuff ring” once the loose ash particles weld together.
 Shield Volcano- Shield volcanoes are formed by easily flowing lava that has low viscosity. Their heights are typically about 1/20th of their widths. The lower slopes are gentle but the middle slopes become steeper and then flatten at the summit. Many of the largest volcanoes on Earth are shield volcanoes. The Mauna Loa(Hawaii) is the world’s largest shield volcano.
 Strato volcano- This is a tall, conical volcano with gentle lower slopes that rises steeply near the summit. The summit usually has a small crater. Many of the most dangerous and explosive volcanoes are stratovolcanoes. For example; Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon(Phillipines) and Mt. Agua(Guatemala).
Volcanic Erruptions
An erruptions begins when pressure on a magma chamber forces magma up and out the volcano’s vents. Of course, sideways- directed volcanic explosions(lateral blasts) can shoot ejected material at very high speeds for quite a distance. When magma reaches the Earht’s surface, it is called Lava. Lava may flows as gentle streams called lava flows or it may erupt violently into the air along with the lava are called pyroclastic rocks. This type of eruptions depends somewhat on the amount of gases and silica in the magma. The amount of Silica determines the viscosity of the magma. Steam is what powers the explosion.

Chrysler motors in the market

Chrysler group is working on a new hybrid minivan that doesn’t use batteries or electric motors to drive it, the automaker announced with the Environmental protection Agency.
By the end of next year a Town and Country van built around a hybrid system that relies on pumping-up hydraulic fluid, rather than expensive batteries, will be up and running, Chrysler said. The so-called hydraulic hybrid system was developed at the EPA,s Ann Arbour laboratory and the agency has been testing for years in commercial trucks.
Chrysler wants to use it for light-duty trucks, minivans and large passengers cars. Instead of storing electricity in a battery pack, the hydraulic hybrid system stores energy normally lost during braking to drive pumps that squeeze hydraulic fluid into a large on board tank that also contains a nitrogen-filled bladder. The nitrogen bladder acts like a spring, pushing back against the fluid. When a river is approcahing a stop sign, some of the breaking energy pumps fluid into the tank. As with most hybrid vehicles, the gasoline engine shuts off completely when the vehicle stops. When it’s time to go again, the pressure in the tank is released to push hydraulic motors that turn the wheels. When it’s needed, the gas engine takes over again.The system increases fuel efficiency by about 30% to 35% in overall driving and up to 60% in city driving, according to the EPA.
Among the benefits of the system, according to EPA , is its low cost and simplicity. Once produced in high volumes, the system will pay for itself through fuel savings in less than three years, the EPA predicts. Battery electric hybrid cars typically take much longer.”The EPA and Chrysler are working together to explore the possibilities for making this technology affordable and accessible to drivers everywhere,” EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson.
Hybrid cars currently make up less than two percent of all new car sales, with Toyota’s Prius model making up the largest number far with Toyota introducing a new version later this year. Chrysler is working to improve the fuel economy of its vehicle line-up and has been working to rapidly revamp its offerings, but does not currently have any hybrids on the market.

Natural Hazards

Natural Hazards
Natural hazards are defined as , “those elements of the phyical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces extraneous to him.” The prefix “natural” shows that these exclude phenomenon that are a result of human action. An event that cause large numbers of fatalities and tremendous loss of property is a ‘natural disaster.’
Violent volcano
One of the most explosively violent elements on Earth is that of an errupting volcano as it spews forth molten lava. There are few sights more awe-inspiring than the sight of red hot lava glinting through the cracks on the softy black crust as the river of molten matter winds its way through the landscape. The most common conception about a volcano is that it is a mountain with a hole/crater at the top through which a lava escapes. Not everybody realizes that unlike most mountains, which are pushed up from below, volcanoes are built up by an accumulation of the same materials that they eject.
Volcano Architecture
A volcano constitutes a vent, a pipe, a crater and a cone.
Vent-This is the opening through which volcanic materials is ejected. A central vent underlies the summit crater of the volcano. It is connected to a magma chamber, which is the main storage area for material that is finally ejected.
Pipe- This is a passageway through which the ejected magma rises to the surface.
Crater-This is the ionic bowl-shaped depression at the top of the volcano.
Cone- Solidified lava, ashes and cinder form the cone and it rises higher with each erruption. The sides of the volcano often contain fractures that connect to the central vent or to shallow magma chambers. Magma is ejected through the sides of the volcano via these fractures. Such erruptions lead to cone shaped accumulations called parasitic cones. Fractures are also conduits for escaping gases, which are released through openings called fumaroles.
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Is medicine from tobacco possible?

Tobacco isn’t famous for its health benefits. But now scientists have succeded in using genetically modified tobacco plants to produce medicines for its several auto immmune and inflammatory diseases, including diabetes. The research is published in the open access journal BMC Biotechnology.
A large team of scientists from several European research organizations have participated in the study as a part of the Pharma planta project. Led by professor Mario Pezzotti at the University of Verona, Scientists have created transgenic tobacco plants that would produce biologically active interlukin-10, a potent anti inflammatory cytokine. They tried two different veersions of interlukin-10(one from a mouse and the other from virus, and the generated plants in which this protein was targeted to three different compartments within the cell to see which would work most effectively.
The researchers found that tobacco plants were able to process both forms of interlukin-10 correctly, producing the active cytokine at high enough levels. The next step will be to feed these plants to mice with autoimmune diseases to find out how effective they are.
The scientists are keen to use the plants to see whether repeated small dose could help prevent type-1 Diabetes mellitus, in combinaation with other auto-antigens associated with the disease.
According to Pezzotti, Transgenic plants are attractive systems for the production of Therapeutic proteins because they offer the possibility of large scale production of foreign proteins at low cost, and they have low maintenance requirements. The fact that they can be eaten, which delivers the drug where it is needed, thus avoiding lengthy purification procedures, is another advantage compared with traditional drug synthesis.